A Dey Krahorm resident carries away bedding as she passes red-clad hired hands from developer and property owner 7NG. In the foreground is a potrait of King Father Norodom Sihanouk, who in the 1960s pushed for construction of middle-class housing and shared public space, including the adjacent Bassac apartments, for which the Dey Krahorm land formerly served as a park. (Photo by: Heng Chivoan)Amnesty International
PRESS RELEASE
January, 26 2009
The Cambodian authorities must stop denying people the right to housing and ensure adequate compensation and restitution for over 150 poor urban families who were forcibly evicted from central Phnom Penh at the weekend, Amnesty International said today.
Cambodian security forces and demolition workers forcibly evicted 152 families from Dey Kraham community in the early hours of 24 January 2009, leaving the vast majority of them homeless. At around 3 am, an estimated 250 police, military police and workers hired by the company claiming to own the land blocked access to the community before dispersing the population with tear gas and threats of violence. At 6 am excavators moved in and levelled the village. Some of the families were not able to retrieve belongings from their homes before the demolition. Officials from Phnom Penh municipality were present during the destruction.
“The most urgent task now is for the government to immediately address the humanitarian needs of these people, who have lost their homes and face imminent food and water shortages,” said Brittis Edman, Cambodia researcher. “They will also need assistance for a long time to come.”
Cambodia is a state party to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and has an obligation to protect the population against forced evictions. Saturday’s events show all too clearly how little respect Cambodian authorities have for these requirements.
The Phnom Penh municipality has provided less than 30 of the 152 families with shelter at a designated resettlement site at Cham Chao commune in Dangkor district, some 16 kilometres from the city centre. Most of the other structures at the site are still under construction and lack roofs. There is no clean water, no electricity, sewage or basic services. Earlier, most of the affected community rejected being resettled there because it was too far from Phnom Penh, where they work, mostly as street vendors.
Since the forced eviction, the Dey Kraham community has been told that the company, which has allegedly purchased the land, has withdrawn earlier offers of compensation, leaving families who have been living in uncertainty and insecurity for more than two years, now faced with rebuilding their lives with nothing.
Local authority representatives sold the land to the company, 7NG, in 2005 without the knowledge, participation or consultation with the affected community. Some 300 families were coerced into moving amid threats, harassment and intimidation, while 152 families continued to dispute the validity of the sale and refused to give up the land without compensation.
Just over a week before the forced eviction, the affected community told the authorities and the company that they were willing to move if they received adequate compensation for the land, where many of them have lived, uncontested, for decades and to which they have strong claims under the 2001 Land Law. The company then increased the offer of compensation, but the two sides had not yet reached an agreement.
“It is an outrage that the Cambodian authorities went ahead with the forced eviction, when progress was being made towards a mutual settlement. Now hundreds of children, women and men are left homeless”, said Edman.
Background
Forced evictions are one of the most widespread human rights violations in Cambodia, and those affected are almost exclusively marginalised people living in poverty, in both urban and rural areas. In 2008, at least 27 forced evictions affecting over 20,000 people were reported in the media and by local organisations.
Hundreds of land activists are facing spurious charges, and dozens have been imprisoned, as the rich and powerful are increasingly abusing the criminal justice system to acquire land and evict those living there. At least nine community representatives from Dey Kraham have been charged for criminal offences as a result of their peaceful defence of their right to housing.
As a state party to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Cambodia is obliged to ensure, before any planned evictions, that all alternatives are explored in consultation with those affected by the eviction. Evictions may only occur in accordance with the law and in conformity with international standards, including genuine consultation with those affected; adequate notice and information on the proposed eviction; and provisions of legal remedies for those affected. Evictions may only occur if they do not render individuals homeless or vulnerable to the violation of other human rights.
In May 2009, the Committee Economic, Social and Cultural Rights will consider Cambodia’s first and considerably delayed report on its compliance with the treaty.
Cambodian security forces and demolition workers forcibly evicted 152 families from Dey Kraham community in the early hours of 24 January 2009, leaving the vast majority of them homeless. At around 3 am, an estimated 250 police, military police and workers hired by the company claiming to own the land blocked access to the community before dispersing the population with tear gas and threats of violence. At 6 am excavators moved in and levelled the village. Some of the families were not able to retrieve belongings from their homes before the demolition. Officials from Phnom Penh municipality were present during the destruction.
“The most urgent task now is for the government to immediately address the humanitarian needs of these people, who have lost their homes and face imminent food and water shortages,” said Brittis Edman, Cambodia researcher. “They will also need assistance for a long time to come.”
Cambodia is a state party to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and has an obligation to protect the population against forced evictions. Saturday’s events show all too clearly how little respect Cambodian authorities have for these requirements.
The Phnom Penh municipality has provided less than 30 of the 152 families with shelter at a designated resettlement site at Cham Chao commune in Dangkor district, some 16 kilometres from the city centre. Most of the other structures at the site are still under construction and lack roofs. There is no clean water, no electricity, sewage or basic services. Earlier, most of the affected community rejected being resettled there because it was too far from Phnom Penh, where they work, mostly as street vendors.
Since the forced eviction, the Dey Kraham community has been told that the company, which has allegedly purchased the land, has withdrawn earlier offers of compensation, leaving families who have been living in uncertainty and insecurity for more than two years, now faced with rebuilding their lives with nothing.
Local authority representatives sold the land to the company, 7NG, in 2005 without the knowledge, participation or consultation with the affected community. Some 300 families were coerced into moving amid threats, harassment and intimidation, while 152 families continued to dispute the validity of the sale and refused to give up the land without compensation.
Just over a week before the forced eviction, the affected community told the authorities and the company that they were willing to move if they received adequate compensation for the land, where many of them have lived, uncontested, for decades and to which they have strong claims under the 2001 Land Law. The company then increased the offer of compensation, but the two sides had not yet reached an agreement.
“It is an outrage that the Cambodian authorities went ahead with the forced eviction, when progress was being made towards a mutual settlement. Now hundreds of children, women and men are left homeless”, said Edman.
Background
Forced evictions are one of the most widespread human rights violations in Cambodia, and those affected are almost exclusively marginalised people living in poverty, in both urban and rural areas. In 2008, at least 27 forced evictions affecting over 20,000 people were reported in the media and by local organisations.
Hundreds of land activists are facing spurious charges, and dozens have been imprisoned, as the rich and powerful are increasingly abusing the criminal justice system to acquire land and evict those living there. At least nine community representatives from Dey Kraham have been charged for criminal offences as a result of their peaceful defence of their right to housing.
As a state party to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Cambodia is obliged to ensure, before any planned evictions, that all alternatives are explored in consultation with those affected by the eviction. Evictions may only occur in accordance with the law and in conformity with international standards, including genuine consultation with those affected; adequate notice and information on the proposed eviction; and provisions of legal remedies for those affected. Evictions may only occur if they do not render individuals homeless or vulnerable to the violation of other human rights.
In May 2009, the Committee Economic, Social and Cultural Rights will consider Cambodia’s first and considerably delayed report on its compliance with the treaty.
19 comments:
$20,000 is adequate compensation, but no, they want millions.
Oh well, that's what happen when you listen to Pouk Ah Scam Rainxy and his potato diggers.
10:26,
I support your view!
10:26 PM,
May you and your family rot in hell? And I hope, before that happens, all your family members have cancer first.
That is the curse on behalf of Dey Krahorm residents.
$20,000 should have been enough, considering that they illegally occupied the land in the first place.
Always vote for the Cambodian People's Party for peace and stability.
10:40,
Curse you as well... I hope everyone in your family will die next year.
That is the curse on behalf of the Cambodian people in Cambodia.
A la khmer version
KHMER SRALANH KHMER
A la Yuon version
KHMER SRALAB KHMER
Cambodia
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For the Kim Wilde song, see Cambodia (song).
Kingdom of Cambodia
Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea
Royaume du Cambodge
Flag of Cambodia Coat of arms of Cambodia
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:
"Nation, Religion, King"
Anthem: Nokoreach
Location of Cambodia
Capital
(and largest city) Phnom Penh
[show location on an interactive map] 11°33′N 104°55′E / 11.55°N 104.917°E / 11.55; 104.917
Official languages Khmer
Demonym Cambodian
Government Constitutional monarchy,
Parliamentary representative democracy
- King Norodom Sihamoni
- Prime Minister Hun Sen
Formation
- Khmer empire 802
- Monarchy reestablished November 9, 1953
- Monarchy restored
May 1993
Area
- Total 181,035 km2 (88th)
69,898 sq mi
- Water (%) 2.5
Population
- 2008 estimate 13,388,910 (67th)
- 2008 census 13,388,910
- Density 74/km2 (125th)
192/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate
- Total $26.064 billion[1] (89th)
- Per capita $1,817[1] (133rd)
GDP (nominal) 2007 estimate
- Total $8.690 billion[1]
- Per capita $606[1]
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.598 (medium) (131st)
Currency Riel (៛)1 (KHR)
Time zone (UTC+7)
- Summer (DST) (UTC+7)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .kh
Calling code 855
1 Local currency, although US dollars are widely used.
The Kingdom of Cambodia (pronounced /kæmˈboʊdiə/, formerly known as Kampuchea (/kæmpuːˈtʃiːə/), , transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East Asia with a population of over 13 million people.[2] The kingdom's capital and largest city is Phnom Penh. Cambodia is the successor state of the once powerful Hindu and Buddhist Khmer Empire, which ruled most of the Indochinese Peninsula between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries.
A citizen of Cambodia is usually identified as "Cambodian" or "Khmer," though the latter strictly refers to ethnic Khmers. Most Cambodians are Theravada Buddhists of Khmer extraction, but the country also has a substantial number of predominantly Muslim Cham, as well as ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese and small animist hill tribes.
The country borders Thailand to its west and northwest, Laos to its northeast, and Vietnam to its east and southeast. In the south it faces the Gulf of Thailand. The geography of Cambodia is dominated by the Mekong river (colloquial Khmer: Tonle Thom or "the great river") and the Tonlé Sap ("the fresh water lake"), an important source of fish.
Cambodia's main industries are garments, tourism, and construction. In 2007, foreign visitors to Angkor Wat numbered more than 4 million.[3] In 2005, oil and natural gas deposits were found beneath Cambodia's territorial waters, and once commercial extraction begins in 2011, the oil revenues could profoundly affect Cambodia's economy.[4]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Politics and government
* 3 Military
* 4 Geography
o 4.1 Climate
* 5 Administrative divisions
o 5.1 City and province sizes
* 6 Foreign relations
* 7 Wildlife of Cambodia
* 8 Economy
* 9 Demographics
* 10 Health
* 11 Culture and society
* 12 Transport
* 13 International rankings
* 14 See also
* 15 Notes
* 16 External links
[edit] History
Main article: History of Cambodia
A Khmer army going to war against the Cham, from a relief on the Bayon
Southeast Asia circa 1100 AD. Khmer Empire lands in blue.
The first advanced civilizations in present-day Cambodia appeared in the 1st millennium AD. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and Chenla coalesced in what is now present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. These states, which are assumed by most scholars to have been Khmer,[5] had close relations with China and Thailand.[6] Their collapse was followed by the rise of the Khmer Empire, a civilization which flourished in the area from the 9th century to the 13th century.[7] The Khmer Empire declined yet remained powerful in the region until the 15th century. The empire's center of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals was constructed during the empire's zenith.[8] Angkor, the world's largest pre-industrial civilization and Angkor Wat, the most famous and best-preserved religious temple at the site, is a reminder of Cambodia's past as a major regional power.
After a long series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Thai and abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown.[9] [10] The court moved the capital to Lovek where the kingdom sought to regain its glory through maritime trade. The attempt was short-lived, however, as continued wars with the Thai and Vietnamese resulted in the loss of more territory and the conquering of Lovek in 1594. During the next three centuries, The Khmer kingdom alternated as a vassal state of the Thai and Vietnamese kings, with short-lived periods of relative independence between.[citation needed]
King Norodom of Cambodia (1834-1904).
In 1863 King Norodom, who had been installed by Thailand,[11] sought the protection of France from the Thai and Vietnamese, after tensions grew between them. In 1867, the Thai king signed a treaty with France, renouncing suzerainty over Cambodia in exchange for the control of Battambang and Siem Reap provinces which officially became part of Thailand. The provinces were ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Thailand in 1906.
Cambodia continued as a protectorate of France from 1863 to 1953, administered as part of the colony of French Indochina, though occupied by the Japanese empire from 1941 to 1945[citation needed]. Cambodia gained independence from France on November 9, 1953. It became a constitutional monarchy under King Norodom Sihanouk.
In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated in favour of his father in order to be elected Prime Minister. Upon his father's death in 1960, Sihanouk again became head of state, taking the title of Prince. As the Vietnam War progressed, Sihanouk adopted an official policy of neutrality in the Cold War. However, Cambodians began to take sides, and he was ousted in 1970 by a military coup led by Prime Minister General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak, while on a trip abroad. From Beijing, Sihanouk realigned himself with the communist Khmer Rouge rebels who had been slowly gaining territory in the remote mountain regions and urged his followers to help in overthrowing the pro-United States government of Lon Nol, hastening the onset of civil war.[12]
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
Operation Menu, a series of secret B-52 bombing raids by the United States on alleged Viet Cong bases and supply routes inside Cambodia, was acknowledged after Lon Nol assumed power; U.S. forces briefly invaded Cambodia in a further effort to disrupt the Viet Cong. The bombing continued and, as the Cambodian communists began gaining ground, eventually included strikes on suspected Khmer Rouge sites until halted in 1973.[13]
Some two million Cambodians were made refugees by the bombing and fighting and fled to Phnom Penh. Estimates of the number of Cambodians killed during the bombing campaigns vary widely. Views of the effects of the bombing also vary widely. The US Seventh Air Force argued that the bombing prevented the fall of Phnom Penh in 1973 by killing 16,000 of 25,500 Khmer Rouge fighters besieging the city.[14] Journalist William Shawcross and Cambodia specialists Milton Osborne, David P. Chandler and Ben Kiernan argued that the bombing drove peasants to join the Khmer Rouge. Chandler writes that the bombing provided "the psychological ingredients of a violent, vengeful and unrelenting social revolution."[15] Cambodia specialist Craig Etcheson argued that it is "untenable" to assert that the Khmer Rouge would not have won but for US intervention, and that while the bombing did help Khmer Rouge recruitment, they "would have won anyway."[16]
As the war ended, a draft US AID report observed that the country faced famine in 1975, with 75% of its draft animals destroyed by the war, and that rice planting for the next harvest would have to be done "by the hard labor of seriously malnourished people." The report predicted that
without large-scale external food and equipment assistance there will be widespread starvation between now and next February... Slave labor and starvation rations for half the nation's people (probably heaviest among those who supported the republic) will be a cruel necessity for this year, and general deprivation and suffering will stretch over the next two or three years before Cambodia can get back to rice self-sufficiency.[17]
Stupa which houses the skulls of those killed at Choeung Ek
The Khmer Rouge reached Phnom Penh and took power in 1975, changing the official name of the country to Democratic Kampuchea, led by Pol Pot. The Regime, heavily influenced and backed by China, immediately evacuated the cities and sent the entire population on forced marches to rural work projects. They attempted to rebuild the country's agriculture on the model of the 11th century. They discarded Western medicine, destroyed temples, libraries, and anything considered western. Any person with trained skills, doctors, lawyers, teachers, were especially targeted. According to Robert Kaplan in The Ends of the Earth (Vintage, 1996, p 406), "eyeglasses were as deadly as the yellow star." Over a million Cambodians, out of a total population of 8 million, died from executions, overwork, starvation and disease. There were almost no drugs in the country.[18]
Estimates vary as to how many people were killed by the Khmer Rouge regime, ranging from approximately one to three million.[19][20] This era has given rise to the term Killing Fields, and the prison Tuol Sleng became as notorious as Auschwitz in the history of mass killing. Hundreds of thousands more fled across the border into neighbouring Thailand. The regime disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. The Cham Muslims suffered serious purges with as much as half of their population exterminated.[21]
In November 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia to stop Khmer Rouge incursions across the border and the genocide in Cambodia.[22] Violent occupation and warfare between the Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge holdouts continued throughout the 1980s. Peace efforts began in Paris in 1989, culminating two years later in October 1991 in a comprehensive peace settlement. The United Nations was given a mandate to enforce a ceasefire, and deal with refugees and disarmament.[23]
In recent years, reconstruction efforts have progressed and some political stability has finally returned to Cambodia after the brutality of the 1970s and the 1980s. However, Cambodia's natural resources, particularly its valuable timber, are still being exploited by interests from Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Australia. Until 1999, the Khmer Rouge were still active in some areas, often supporting illegal timber operations. At that time, travel by land and river was still precarious. (Kaplan, p. 415).
The stability established following the conflict was shaken in 1997 during a coup d'état,[24] but has otherwise remained in place. Cambodia has been aided by a number of more developed nations like Japan, France, Germany, Canada, Australia, The United States and Great Britain.
[edit] Politics and government
Main article: Politics of Cambodia
Hun Sen, Prime Minister of Cambodia
The politics of Cambodia formally take place, according to the nation's constitution of 1993, in the framework of a constitutional monarchy operated as a parliamentary representative democracy. The Prime Minister of Cambodia is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system, while the king is the head of state. The Prime Minister is appointed by the King, on the advice and with the approval of the National Assembly; the Prime Minister and his or her ministerial appointees exercise executive power in government. Legislative power is vested in both the executive and the two chambers of parliament, the National Assembly of Cambodia and the Senate.
His Majesty, King Norodom Sihamoni
On October 14 2004, King Norodom Sihamoni was selected by a special nine-member throne council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the surprise abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk a week before. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the new king's brother), both members of the throne council. He was crowned in Phnom Penh on October 29 2004.
In 2006, Transparency International's rating of corrupt countries rated Cambodia as 151st of 163 countries of their Corruption Perceptions Index.[25] The 2007 edition of the same list placed Cambodia at 162nd out of 179 countries.[26] According to this same list, Cambodia is the 3rd most corrupt nation in the South-East Asia area, behind Laos, at 168th, and Myanmar, at joint 179th. The BBC reports that corruption is rampant in the Cambodian political arena[27] with international aid from the U.S. and other countries being illegally transferred into private accounts.[28] Corruption has also added to the wide income disparity within the population.[29]
[edit] Military
Royal Cambodian Army special forces
Main article: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces
The king is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) and the country's prime minister effectively holds the position of commander-in-chief. The introduction of a revised command structure early in 2000 was a key prelude to the reorganization of the RCAF. This saw the ministry of national defense form three subordinate general departments responsible for logistics and finance, materials and technical services, and defense services. The High Command Headquarters (HCHQ) was left unchanged, but the general staff was dismantled and the former will assume responsibility over three autonomous infantry divisions. A joint staff was also formed, responsible for inter-service co-ordination and staff management within HCHQ.
The minister of National Defense is General Tea Banh. Banh has served as defense minister since 1979. The Secretaries of State for Defense are Chay Saing Yun and Por Bun Sreu. General Ke Kim Yan was the former commander of the RCAF. He was replaced in January 2009 by his deputy, Gen. Pol Saroeun, the new commander of the RCAF, who is a long time loyalist to Prime Minister Hun Sen. The Army Commander is General Meas Sophea and the Army Chief of Staff is Chea Saran.
[edit] Geography
Cambodian island of Koh Tonsay
Main article: Geography of Cambodia
Cambodia has an area of 181,035 square kilometers (69,898 sq mi), sharing an 800 kilometer (500 mi) border with Thailand in the north and west, a 541 kilometer (336 mi) border with Laos in the northeast, and a 1,228 kilometer (763 mi) border with Vietnam in the east and southeast. It has 443 kilometers (275 mi) of coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.
A boat on the Tonle Sap.
The most distinctive geographical feature is the lacustrine plain, formed by the inundations of the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), measuring about 2,590 square kilometers (1,000 sq mi) during the dry season and expanding to about 24,605 square kilometers (9,500 sq mi) during the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of Cambodia. Much of this area has been designated as a biosphere reserve.
Most (about 75%) of the country lies at elevations of less than 100 metres (330 ft) above sea level, the exceptions being the Cardamom Mountains (highest elevation 1,813 m / 5,948 ft) and their southeast extension the Dâmrei Mountains ("Elephant Mountains") (elevation range 500–1,000 m or 1,640–3,280 ft), as well the steep escarpment of the Dângrêk Mountains (average elevation 500 m / 1,640 ft) along the border with Thailand's Isan region. The highest elevation of Cambodia is Phnom Aoral, near Pursat in the centre of the country, at 1,813 metres (5,948 ft).
[edit] Climate
Climate chart for Phnom Penh
J F M A M J J A S O N D
7
31
21
10
32
22
40
34
23
77
35
24
134
34
24
155
33
24
171
32
24
160
32
26
224
31
25
257
30
24
127
30
23
45
30
22
average temperatures in °C
precipitation totals in mm
source: BBC Weather
Imperial conversion[show]
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0.3
88
70
0.4
90
72
1.6
93
73
3
95
75
5.3
93
75
6.1
91
75
6.7
90
75
6.3
90
79
8.8
88
77
10
86
75
5
86
73
1.8
86
72
average temperatures in °F
precipitation totals in inches
Monsoon season in Kampong Speu Province
Serendipity Bay, Sihanoukville
Cambodia's temperatures range from 21° to 35°C (69° to 95°F) and experiences tropical monsoons. Southwest monsoons blow inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to October. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from November to March. The country experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period occurring from January to February.
It has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to October, can see temperatures drop to 22 °C and is generally accompanied with high humidity. The dry season lasts from November to April when temperatures can raise up to 40 °C around April. The best months to visit Cambodia are November to January when temperatures and humidity are lower.
[edit] Administrative divisions
Provinces (khaet) and municipalities (krong) are Cambodia's first-level administrative divisions. Rural areas are divided among Cambodia's twenty provinces, and urban areas are divided among Cambodia's four municipalities.
Full article: Administrative divisions of Cambodia
[edit] City and province sizes
No. City or province Area
km²
sq mi
1 City of Phnom Penh 290 112
2 Kandal Province 3,568 1,378
3 Takeo Province 3,563 1,376
4 Kampong Cham Province 9,799 3,783
5 Kampong Thom Province 13,814 5,334
6 Siem Reap Province 10,299 3,976
7 Preah Vihear Province 13,788 5,324
8 Oddar Meancheay Province 6,158 2,378
9 Banteay Meanchey Province 6,679 2,579
10 Battambang Province 11,072 4,275
11 City of Pailin 803 310
12 Pursat Province 12,692 4,900
13 Kampong Chhnang Province 5,521 2,132
14 Kampong Speu Province 7,017 2,709
15 Koh Kong Province 11,160 4,309
16 City of Sihanoukville 868 335
17 Kampot Province 4,873.2 1,881.6
18 City of Kep 335.8 129.7
19 Prey Veng Province 4,883 1,885
20 Svay Rieng Province 2,966 1,145
21 Kratie Province 11,094 4,283
22 Stung Treng Province 11,092 4,283
23 Ratanakiri Province 10,782 4,163
24 Mondulkiri Province 14,288 5,517
25 Tonlé Sap 3,000 1,158
TOTAL AREA 181,035 69,898
[edit] Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Cambodia
Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. It is an Asian Development Bank (ADB) member, a member of ASEAN, and joined the WTO on October 13, 2004. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.
Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with numerous countries; the government reports twenty embassies in the country[30] including many of its Asian neighbours and those of important players during the Paris peace negotiations, including the US, Australia, Canada, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, and Russia.[31]
While the violent ruptures of the 1970s and 80s have passed, several border disputes between Cambodia and its neighbours persist. There are disagreements over some offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam, and undefined maritime boundaries and border areas with Thailand.
In January 2003, there were anti-Thai riots in Phnom Penh prompted by rumoured comments about Angkor Wat allegedly made by a Thai actress and printed in Reaksmei Angkor, a Cambodian newspaper, and later quoted by Prime Minister Hun Sen.[32] The Thai government sent military aircraft to evacuate Thai nationals and closed its border with Cambodia to Thais and Cambodians (at no time was the border ever closed to foreigners or Western tourists) while Thais demonstrated outside the Cambodian embassy in Bangkok. The border was re-opened on March 21, after the Cambodian government paid $6 million USD in compensation for the destruction of the Thai embassy and agreed to compensate individual Thai businesses for their losses. The "comments" that had sparked the riots turned out to be false. More problems came between Cambodia and Thailand in mid 2008 when Cambodia wanted to list Prasat Preah Vihear as a UNESCO World heritage site, which later resulted in a stand-off in which both countries deployed their soldiers near the border and around the disputed territory between the two countries.
[edit] Wildlife of Cambodia
Indochinese Tiger
Main article: Wildlife of Cambodia
See also: Deforestation in Cambodia
Cambodia has a wide variety of plants and animals. There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, 240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species (Tonle Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species. Much of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding biosphere.[33] The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a unique ecological phenomenon surrounding the Tonle Sap. It encompasses the lake and nine provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang, Banteay Meanchey, Krong Pailin, Otdar Meanchey and Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.[34]
The country has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world. Since 1970, Cambodia's primary rainforest cover fell dramatically from over 70 percent in 1970 to just 3.1 percent in 2007. In total, Cambodia lost 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) of forest between 1990 and 2005—3,340 km2 (1,290 sq mi) of which was primary forest. As of 2007, less than 3,220 km2 (1,243 sq mi) of primary forest remain with the result that the future sustainability of the forest reserves of Cambodia is under severe threat, with illegal loggers looking to generate revenue.[35]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Cambodia
Cambodia's tallest building (at 2008) under construction
Final economic indicators for 2007 are not yet available. 2006 GDP was $7.265 billion (per capita GDP $513), with annual growth of 10.8%. Estimates for 2007 are for a GDP of $8.251 billion (per capita $571) and annual growth of 8.5%). Inflation for 2006 was 2.6%, and the current estimate for final 2007 inflation is 6.2%.[36]
Rice cropping plays an important role in the economy
Per capita income is rapidly increasing, but is low compared with other countries in the region. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related sub-sectors. Rice, fish, timber, garments and rubber are Cambodia's major exports. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reintroduced more than 750 traditional rice varieties to Cambodia from its rice seed bank in the Philippines.[37] These varieties had been collected in the 1960s. In 1987, the Australian government funded IRRI to assist Cambodia to improve its rice production. By 2000, Cambodia was once again self-sufficient in rice. [38] However, few Cambodian farmers grow other crops leaving them vulnerable to crop failure. In recent years, various international aid organisations have begun crop diversification programs to encourage farmers to grow other crops.
Angkor Wat, the biggest tourist draw of Cambodia
The recovery of Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997–98, due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism also fell off drastically. Since then however, growth has been steady. In 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 5.0%. Despite severe flooding, GDP grew at 5.0% in 2000, 6.3% in 2001, and 5.2% in 2002. Tourism was Cambodia's fastest growing industry, with arrivals increasing from 219,000 in 1997 to 1,055,000 in 2004. During 2003 and 2004 the growth rate remained steady at 5.0%, while in 2004 inflation was at 1.7% and exports at $1.6 billion USD. As of 2005, GDP per capita in PPP terms was $2,200, which ranked 178th (out of 233) countries.[39]
The older population often lacks education, particularly in the countryside, which suffers from a lack of basic infrastructure. Fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid, although there has been significant assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. Donors pledged $504 million to the country in 2004,[40] while the Asian Development Bank alone has provided $850 million in loans, grants, and technical assistance.[41]
The tourism industry is the country's second-greatest source of hard currency after the textile industry.[23] Between January and December 2007, visitor arrivals were 2.0 million, an increase of 18.5% over the same period in 2006. Most visitors (51%) arrived through Siem Reap with the remainder (49%) through Phnom Penh and other destinations.[42] Other tourist destinations include Sihanoukville in the south east which has several popular beaches, and the area around Kampot and Kep including the Bokor Hill Station.
[edit] Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Cambodia and Ethnic groups in Cambodia
Cham muslims of Cambodia
More than 90% of its population is of Khmer origin and speaks the Khmer language, the country's official language. The remainder include Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham and Khmer Loeu.
The Khmer language is a member of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of the Austroasiatic language group. French, once the language of government in Indochina, is still spoken by some older Cambodians. French is also the language of instruction in some schools and universities that are funded by the government of France. Cambodian French, a remnant of the country's colonial past, is a dialect found in Cambodia and is sometimes used in government. However, in recent decades, many younger Cambodians and those in the business-class have favoured learning English. In the major cities and tourist centers, English is widely spoken and taught at a large number of schools due to the overwhelming number of tourists from English-speaking countries. Even in the most rural outposts, however, most young people speak at least some English, as it is often taught by monks at the local pagodas where many children are educated.
Local women at a market in Battambang
Cambodia religiosity
religion percent
Buddhism
95%
Islam
3%
Christianity
2%
The dominant religion, a form of Theravada Buddhism (95%), was suppressed by the Khmer Rouge but has since experienced a revival. Islam (3%) and Christianity (2%) are also practiced.[43]
Civil war and its aftermath have had a marked effect on the Cambodian population. The median age is 20.6 years, with more than 50% of the population younger than 25. At 0.95 males/female, Cambodia has the most female-biased sex ratio in the Greater Mekong Subregion [44]. In the Cambodian population over 65, the female to male ratio is 1.6:1.[40] UNICEF has designated Cambodia the third most mined country in the world,[45] attributing over 60,000 civilian deaths and thousands more maimed or injured since 1970 to the unexploded land mines left behind in rural areas.[46] The majority of the victims are children herding animals or playing in the fields.[45] Adults that survive landmines often require amputation of one or more limbs and have to resort to begging for survival.[46] In 2006, the number of landmine casualties in Cambodia took a sharp decrease of more than 50% compared to 2005, with the number of landmine victims down from 800 in 2005 to less than 400 in 2006. The reduced casualty rate continued in 2007, with 208 casualties (38 killed and 170 injured).[47]
[edit] Health
Main article: Health in Cambodia
Cambodia's infant mortality rate has decreased from 115 in 1993 to 89.4 per 1000 live births in 1998. In the same period, the under-five mortality rate decreased from 181 to 115 per 1000 live births.[48] In the province with worst health indicators, Ratanakiri, 22.9% of children die before the age of five.[49]
[edit] Culture and society
Main articles: Culture of Cambodia and Sport in Cambodia
Khmer classical dancers.
Khmer culture, as developed and spread by the Khmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture and sculpture, which have been exchanged with neighbouring Laos and Thailand through the history. Angkor Wat (Angkor means "city" and Wat "temple") is the best preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era and hundreds of other temples have been discovered in and around the region. The Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, the infamous prison of the Khmer Rouge, and Choeung Ek, one of the main Killing Fields are other important historic sites.
Bonn Om Teuk (Festival of Boat Racing), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong river begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia's population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.[50] Popular games include cockfighting, soccer, and kicking a sey, which is similar to a footbag. Recent artistic figures include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Sereysothea (and later Meng Keo Pichenda), who introduced new musical styles to the country.
Amok, a popular Khmer dish.
Rice, as in other Southeast Asian countries, is the staple grain, while fish from the Mekong and Tonle Sap also form an important part of the diet. The Cambodian per capita supply of fish and fish products for food and trade in 2000 was 20 kilograms of fish per year or 2 ounces per day per person.[51] Some of the fish can be made into prahok for longer storage. Overall, the cuisine of Cambodia is similar to that of its Southeast Asian neighbours. The cuisine is relatively unknown to the world compared to that of its neighbours Thailand and Vietnam.
Football is one of the more popular sports, although professional organized sports are not as prevalent in Cambodia as in western countries due to the economic conditions. The Cambodia national football team managed fourth in the 1972 Asian Cup but development has slowed since the civil war. Western sports such as volleyball, bodybuilding, field hockey, rugby union, golf, and baseball are gaining popularity. Native sports include traditional boat racing, buffalo racing, Pradal Serey , Khmer traditional wrestling and Bokator.
[edit] Transport
National Highway 1
Main article: Transport in Cambodia
The civil war and wildlife severely damaged Cambodia's transport system, but with assistance and equipment from other countries Cambodia has been upgrading the main highways to international standards and most are vastly improved from 2006. Most main roads are now paved. Cambodia has two rail lines, totalling about 612 kilometers (380 mi) of single, one meter gauge track.[52] The lines run from the capital to Sihanoukville on the southern coast, and from Phnom Penh to Sisophon (although trains often run only as far as Battambang). Currently only one passenger train per week operates, between Phnom Penh and Battambang.
Besides the main interprovincial traffic artery connecting the capital Phnom Penh with Sihanoukville, resurfacing a former dirt road with concrete / asphalt and implementation of 5 major river crossings by means of bridges have now permanently connected Phnom Penh with Koh Kong and hence there is now uninterrupted road access to neighboring Thailand and their vast road system.
Siem Reap International Airport
The nation's extensive inland waterways were important historically in international trade. The Mekong and the Tonle Sap River, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometers (2,300 mi) navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 meters (2 ft) and another 282 kilometers (175 mi) navigable to craft drawing 1.8 meters (6 ft).[52] Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, located at the junction of the Bassac, the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap rivers, is the only river port capable of receiving 8,000-ton ships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season.
With increasing economic activity has come an increase in automobile and motorcycle use, though bicycles still predominate; as often in developing countries, an associated rise in traffic deaths and injuries is occurring.[53] Cycle rickshaws are an additional option often used by visitors.
The country has four commercial airports. Phnom Penh International Airport (Pochentong) in Phnom Penh is the second largest in Cambodia. Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport is the largest and serves the most international flights in and out of Cambodia. The other airports are in Sihanoukville and Battambang.
[edit] International rankings
Organization
Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom 100 out of 157
Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 126 out of 173
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 162 out of 179
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 131 out of 177
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 110 out of 131
[edit] See also
[hide]
v • d • e
Flag of Cambodia Cambodia topics
History
Timeline · Early history · Dark ages · Colonial · Sihanouk era (1954-1970) · Civil War · Democratic Kampuchea · People's Republic of Kampuchea · Modern Cambodia · UNTAC
Geography
Tonlé Sap Lake
Government
King · Prime Minister
Politics
Politics of Cambodia · National Assembly of Cambodia · Elections · Parties (Cambodian People's Party · Funcinpec · Sam Rainsy Party) · Human rights
Military of Cambodia
Meas Sophea · Royal Cambodian Army · Royal Cambodian Air Force · Royal Cambodian Navy · 911 Special Forces
Economy
Riel · ANZ Royal Bank · Canadia Bank
Demographics
Ethnic groups · Khmer language
Culture
Architecture · Visual arts · Cinema · Clothing · Cuisine · Dance · Ethnic groups · Public holidays · Music · Religion · Sport
Other topics
Communications · Scouting · Transportation · Deforestation
[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b c d "Cambodia". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved on 2008-10-09.
2. ^ General Population Census of Cambodia 2008 - Provisional population totals, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, released 3rd September, 2008
3. ^ San Miguel eyes projects in Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar
4. ^ Cambodia hopes to start oil production in 2009, Ek Madra PHNOM PENH, Jan 19 2007 (Reuters) [1]
5. ^ Country-Studies.com. Country Studies Handbook; information taken from US Dept of the Army. Accessed July 25, 2006.
6. ^ Britannica.com. History of Cambodia. Accessed July 25, 2006.
7. ^ Khmer Empire Map
8. ^ Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city, The Independent, August 15, 2007
9. ^ Chandler, David P. "The Land and the People of Cambodia". 1991. HarperCollins. New York, NY. p 77
10. ^ Scientists dig and fly over Angkor in search of answers to golden city's fall, The Associated Press, June 13, 2004
11. ^ Chandler, D.P. (1993). A history of Cambodia (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
12. ^ Sihanouk, Norodom (1973). My War with the CIA, The Memoirs of Prince Norodom Sihanouk as related to Wilfred Burchett. Pantheon Books.
13. ^ Shawcross, William (1987). Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the destruction of Cambodia. United States: Touchstone.
14. ^ Ibid., p. 298.
15. ^ Pacific Affairs, vol. 56, no. 2, Summer 1983, p. 295.
16. ^ Etcheson, Craig, The Rise and Demise of Democratic Kampuchea, Westview Press, 1984, p. 97
17. ^ Shawcross, William, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia, Touchstone, 1987, pp374-375
18. ^ Ibid.
19. ^ Shawcross, William, The Quality of Mercy: Cambodia, Holocaust and Modern Conscience, Touchstone, 1985, pp. 115-116.
20. ^ Vickery, Michael, Correspondence, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 20, no. 1, January-March 1988, p. 73.
21. ^ The Cambodian Genocide and International Law, By Dr. Gregory H. Stanton, Presented February 22, 1992 at Yale Law School
22. ^ CambodianGenocide.org.A Brief History of the Cambodian Genocide. Accessed July 25, 2006.
23. ^ a b US Department of State. Country Profile of Cambodia. Accessed July 26, 2006.
24. ^ UN OHCHR Cambodia [2]PDF (10.3 KiB)
25. ^ 2006/cpi/surveys_indices/policy_research
26. ^ 2007/cpi/surveys_indices/policy_research
27. ^ BBC Asia-Pacific News (September 19, 2005). Corruption dents Cambodia democracy. Accessed July 24, 2006.
28. ^ World Bank threatens to suspend millions of dollars in aid for Cambodia AP Worldstream 01-16-2005. [3]. Accessed December 29, 2008.
29. ^ BBC News (May 29, 2006). 'Corruption' curbs Cambodia cash. Accessed July 24, 2006.
30. ^ Royal Government of Cambodia.Foreign Embassies.
31. ^ Catharin E. Dalpino and David G. Timberman. "Cambodia's Political Future: Issues for U.S. Policy," Asia Society, March 26, 1998.
32. ^ Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs of the US Department of State.Report to the Congress on the Anti-Thai Riots in Cambodia on January 29, 2003.
33. ^ Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve: perspective 2000, Mekong River Commission (MRC), Mar 1 2003. Retrieved from TSBR website, 29/12/2008 [4]
34. ^ Complete list of biosphere reserves in pdf, Publication Date: 03-11-2008, retrieved from UNESCO website, 29/12/2008 [5]
35. ^ Planet Ark : Logging threatens Cambodian tragedy - UN
36. ^ Economic Institute of Cambodia.
37. ^ Jahn 2006,2007
38. ^ Puckridge 2004, Fredenburg and Hill 1978
39. ^ CIA Factbook. GDP per Capita rankings. Accessed July 24, 2006.
40. ^ a b CIA FactBook. Accessed September 9, 2006.
41. ^ A Fact Sheet: Cambodia and ADB, Asian Development Bank. Accessed September 9, 2006.
42. ^ Ministry of Tourism.[6] Accessed December 29, 2008.
43. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour of the US Department of State. International Religious Freedom Report 2005. Accessed July 24, 2006.
44. ^ CIA World Factbook [7]
45. ^ a b UNICEF. "The Legacy of Landmines". Accessed July 25, 2006.
46. ^ a b PBS.org (July 25, 2003). Cambodia Land Mines. Accessed July 24, 2006.
47. ^ Cambodia, Landmine Monitor Report 2007
48. ^ "WHO country cooperation strategy". World Health Organization (April 2001).
49. ^ "National Child Mortality and Malnutrition (Food Insecurity Outcome) Maps". United Nations World Food Programme. Accessed 2008-05-04.
50. ^ Government of Cambodia Webpage, Bonn Om Touk, the Water and Moon Festivals; accessed July 24, 2006
51. ^ Earthtrends.org Cambodia Country ProfilePDF
52. ^ a b CountryData.com
53. ^ "Picking Up Speed: As Cambodia's Traffic Levels Increase, So Too Does the Road Death Toll," The Cambodia Daily, Saturday, March 9–10, 2002."
[edit] External links
Cambodia portal
Find more about Cambodia on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Source texts from Wikisource
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Government
* King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk Official Website of former King Norodom Sihanouk
* Cambodia.gov.kh Official Royal Government of Cambodia Website (English Version)
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
* Cambodia e-Visa, Applying Travel Visa Online
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members
General information
* Cambodia entry at The World Factbook
* Cambodia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Cambodia at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Cambodia
* Cambodia travel guide from Wikitravel
Other
* Cambodia Country Factsheet from The Common Language Project
* The largest environmental website relating to the Tonle Sap Biosphere and Cambodia
* Cambodia Tribunal Monitor
* Cambodia Program of the United Nations Development Programme
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Khmer people
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Khmer
Khmer people
Total population
16 million (2008 est.)
Regions with significant populations
Cambodia 12.8 million[1]
Vietnam 1.7 million
Thailand 1.4 million
United States 200,000
France 50,000
Canada 25,000
Australia 20,000
Malaysia 11,381
New Zealand 5,000
Laos 4,000
Belgium 3,000
Languages
Khmer, Vietnamese, Northern Khmer, Thai
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
Mon, Wa, and other Mon-Khmer groups
The Khmer people; pronounced /kmɛər, kəˈmɛər/; are the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 14.2 million[1] people in the country. Part of the larger Mon-Khmer ethnolinguistic peoples found throughout Southeast Asia, they speak the Khmer language. The majority of the Khmer are followers of the Khmer style of Buddhism, a highly syncretic version which blends elements of Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism, animism and ancestor-spirit worship.[2] Significant populations of Khmers reside in adjacent areas of Thailand (Northern Khmer) and the Mekong Delta region of neighboring Vietnam (Khmer Krom).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Geography and demographics
* 3 Culture and society
* 4 References
o 4.1 Notes
* 5 See also
* 6 External links
[edit] History
Main article: History of Cambodia
Migrations into the mainland regions of Southeast Asia from the north continued well into historic times. The Khmer came with earlier waves following in the wake of the Malays.[citation needed] Most scholars believe they came at least 3,000 years ago, much earlier than Tai people who now inhabit many parts of what was originally Austroasiatic territory. The reason they migrated into Southeast Asia is generally debated, but scholars believe that Mon-Khmer were pushed down by invading Sino-Tibetans from the north as evident by Austroasiatic vocabulary in Chinese or because of agricultural purposes as evident by their migration routes along major rivers. The Khmer are relatives to the Mon who settled further to the west.
After establishment in Southeast Asia, the history of the Khmer people parallels the history of Cambodia. Like the other early peoples of Southeast Asia such as the Pyu and Mon, the Khmer were influenced by Indian traders and scholars, adapting their religions, sciences, and customs and borrowing from their languages. The Khmer also acquired the concept of the Sivite Deva Raja (God-King) and the great temple as a symbolic holy mountain. Although Cambodian kingdoms waxed and waned and were eventually eclipsed, the Cambodian penchant for building temples of stone throughout their kingdoms left monuments still extant today.
Khmer Art, Museumsinsel Hombroich, Germany
Jayavarman II (802 – 830), revived Cambodian power and built the foundation for the Angkorean empire, founding three capitals--Indrapura, Hariharalaya, and Mahendraparvata--the archeological remains of which reveal much about his times. After winning a long civil war, Suryavarman I (reigned 1002 – 1050) turned his forces eastward and subjugated the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati. Consequently, he ruled over the greater part of present-day Thailand and Laos, as well as the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. This period, during which Angkor Wat was constructed, is considered the apex of Khmer civilization. The Khmer kingdom became a great empire, and the great temples of Angkor, considered an archeological treasure replete with detailed stone bas-reliefs showing many aspects of the culture, including some musical instruments, remain as monuments to the culture of the Khmer. After the death of Suryavarman II (1113 – 1150), Cambodia lapsed into chaos until Jayavarman VII (1181 – 1218) ordered the construction of a new city. He was a Buddhist, and for a time, Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia. As a state religion, however, it was adapted to suit the Deva Raja cult, with a Buddha Raja being substituted for the former Shiva Raja or Vishnu Raja.
A Khmer woman
The rise of the Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai (1238) and Ayuthaya (1350) resulted in almost ceaseless wars with the Cambodians and led to the destruction of Angkor in 1431. They are said to have carried off 90,000 prisoners, many of whom were likely dancers and musicians.[3] The period following 1432, with the Cambodian people bereft of their treasures, documents, and human culture bearers, was one of precipitous decline. In 1434 King Ponhea Yat made Phnom Penh his capital, and Angkor was abandoned to the jungle. Due to continued Siamese and Vietnamese aggression Cambodia appealed to France for protection in 1863 and became a French protectorate in 1864. During the 1880s, along southern Vietnam and Laos, Cambodia was drawn into the French-controlled Indochinese Union. For nearly a century, the French exploited Cambodia commercially, and demanded power over politics, economics, and social life.
During the second half of the twentieth century, the political situation in Cambodia became chaotic. King Norodom Sihanouk (later, Prince, then again King), proclaimed Cambodia's independence in 1949 (granted in full in 1953) and ruled the country until March 18, 1970, when he was overthrown by General Lon Nol, who established the Khmer Republic. On April 17, 1975, the genocidal Khmer Rouge led by Saloth Sar, better known by his alias, Pol Pot, came to power and virtually destroyed the Cambodian people, their health, morality, education, physical environment, and culture. On January 7, 1979 Vietnamese forces ousted the Khmer Rouge. After more than ten years of painfully slow rebuilding with only meager outside help, the United Nations intervened resulting in the Paris Peace Accord on October 23, 1992 and created conditions for general elections in May 1993, leading to the formation of the current government and the restoration of Prince Sihanouk to power as King in 1993. Nonetheless, the Khmer Rouge continued to control portions of western and northern Cambodia until the late 1990s when they surrendered to government forces in exchange for either amnesty or re-adjustment for positions into the Cambodian government, and security outside the capital remains problematic.
[edit] Geography and demographics
The majority of the world's Khmer live in Cambodia, the population of which is 90% Khmer. There are also significant Khmer populations native to Thailand and Vietnam. There are over one million Khmer, mainly in Surin, Buriram and Srisaket provinces, in Thailand. Estimates for the number of Khmer in Vietnam (known as Khmer Krom) vary from the 1.1 million given by government data to seven million advocated by the Khmer Krom Federation.[4]
Due to the Cambodian Civil War, thousands of Khmer now reside in the United States, Canada, Australia and France as well.
[edit] Culture and society
Main article: Culture of Cambodia
Khmer woman in a market.
The culture of the ethnic Khmer is fairly homogeneous throughout their geographic range. Regional dialects exist but are mutually intelligible. The standard is based on Phnom Penh speech, which, due to the city's status as the national capital, has been modestly affected by recent French and Vietnamese influence. However, the variety of Khmer spoken in Battambang is more representative of the speech of the majority of the population. Other dialects are Northern Khmer, called Khmer Surin by Cambodians, spoken by the Khmer in Thailand and Khmer Krom spoken by the Khmer native to the Mekong delta regions of Vietnam adjacent to Cambodia. A little-studied dialect known as Western Khmer, or Cardamom Khmer, is spoken by a small, isolated population in the Cardamon Mountain range extending from Cambodia into Thailand. Although little studied, it is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer.
The modern Khmer strongly identify their ethnic identity with their religious beliefs and practices which combine the tenets of Theravada Buddhism with elements of indigenous ancestor-spirit worship, animism and shamanism.[2] The majority of the Khmer live in rural villages either as rice farmers or fishermen and life revolves around the wat (temple) and the various Buddhist ceremonies throughout the year. However, if a Khmer becomes ill, they will frequently see a kru khmae (shaman/healer) whom they believe can diagnose which of the many spirits (neak ta) has caused the illness and recommend a course of action to propitiate the offended spirit, thereby curing the illness.[5] The kru khmae also is learned in herb lore and is often sought to prepare various "medicines" and potions or for a magical tattoo, all believed to endow one with special prowess and ward off evil spirits or general bad luck.[5] Khmer beliefs also rely heavily on astrology, a remnant of Hinduism. A fortune teller, called hao-ra or kru tieay in Khmer, is often consulted before major events, like choosing a spouse, beginning an important journey or business venture, setting the date for a wedding and determining the proper location for building new structures.
Khmer children
Throughout the year the Khmer celebrate many holidays, most of a religious or spiritual nature, some of which are also observed as public holidays. The two most important are Chol Chnam (Cambodian New Year) and Pchum Ben ("Ancestor Day"). The Khmer Buddhist calendar is divided into 12 months with the traditional new year beginning on the first day of khae chaet which coincides with the first new moon of April in the western calendar. However, the modern celebration has been standardized to coincide with April 13th. The new year's celebration lasts three days, one day to mark the end of the old year, one day to welcome the spirit (tevida) of the coming year, and one day to honor one's parents as preah ros or "living gods (enlightened ones)".
Khmer culture has influenced Thai and Lao cultures. Many Khmer loanwords are found in Thai and Lao, and the Thai Alphabet is derived from the Khmer alphabet, which in turn, is derived from the Pallava script of southern India. Khmer architecture, regalia, customs also served as a vehicle to transmit the influence of India to the Thai and Lao as well.
[edit] References
1. Benjamin Walker, Angkor Empire: A History of the Khmer of Cambodia, Signet Press, Calcutta, 1995.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b CIA FactBook. Accessed July 14, 2008.
2. ^ a b Faith Traditions in Cambodia; pg. 8; accessed August 21, 2006
3. ^ Thailand 1969:151, Blanchard 1958:27
4. ^ KhmerKrom.org
5. ^ a b Khmer Culture
[edit] See also
* Khmer Krom
* Khmer Surin
* Khmer Loeu
* Khmer language
* Khmer script
* Khmer cuisine
* Khmer Empire
* Khmer Rouge
* List of ethnic groups in Vietnam
[edit] External links
* Center For Khmer Studies
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Khmer Empire
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For other uses, see Khmer Empire.
អាណាចក្រខ្មែរ
Khmer Empire
←
802 – 1431 →
[[Image:
|250px|center|Location of Khmer Empire]]Map of Khmer Empire under Jayavarman VII (1200)
Capital Hariharalaya
(802-889)
Yasodharapura
(889-1431)
Koh Ker
(928-944)
Language(s) Khmer
Religion Buddhism, Hinduism
Government Monarchy/Theocracy
Emperor
- 802-850 Jayavarman II
- 889-900 Yasovarman I
- 1002-1050 Suryavarman I
- 1113-1150 Suryavarman II
- 1181-1218 Jayavarman VII
History
- Jayavarman II declared independence from Srivijaya under the Sailendra, proclaiming himself the divine king of Kambuja. 802, 802
- The first time of Surrender of Angkor 1352-1357
- The Second time of Surrender of Angkor 1393
- The Thai invaded Angkor. 1431, 1431
Currency Unknown
This article is part of
the History of Cambodia series
Early history of Cambodia
Funan (68 AD – 550 AD)
Chenla (550 AD – 802 AD)
Khmer Empire (802 AD – 1431 AD)
Charktomok (1437 AD – 1525 AD)
Lovek (1525 AD – 1593 AD)
Dark ages of Cambodia
(1593 – 1863)
Loss of Mekong Delta to Việt Nam
French Colonial Rule (1863–1953)
Post-Independence Cambodia
Cambodian Civil War (1967–1975)
Coup of 1970
Việt Nam War Incursion of 1970
Khmer Rouge Regime (1975–1979)
Cambodian–Vietnamese War (1975–1989)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1993)
1992–93 UNTAC
Modern Cambodia (1993–present)
Timeline
[edit this box]
The Khmer Empire was the largest empire of South East Asia based in what is now Cambodia. The empire, which seceded from the kingdom of Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised parts of modern-day Laos, Thailand,Vietnam and Indonesia. During the formation of the empire, Khmer had close cultural, political and trade relations with Java, and later with Srivijaya empire that lay beyond Khmer's southern border. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, which was the capital during the empire's zenith. Angkor bears testimony to the Khmer empire's immense power and wealth, as well as the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, until Theravada Buddhism prevailed after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century. Modern satellites have revealed Angkor to be the largest pre-industrial urban center in the world, larger than modern day New York.
The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the historical kingdom of Kambuja is also the history of the Khmer from the 9th to the 15th centuries.
From Kambuja itself - and so also from the Angkor region - no written records have survived other than stone inscriptions. Therefore the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilization is derived primarily from:
* archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation
* inscriptions on stela and on stones in the temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings
* reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life in the palace, market scenes and also the everyday lives of the population
* reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travellers.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor is conventionally dated to 802. In this year, king Jayavarman II had himself declared "Chakravartin" (king of the world).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Jayavarman II - the founder of Angkor
o 1.2 Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor
o 1.3 Suryavarman II - Angkor Wat
o 1.4 Jayavarman VII - Angkor Thom
o 1.5 Zhou Daguan - the last blooming
o 1.6 Decline and the end of Angkor
* 2 Timeline of rulers
* 3 References
[edit] History
[edit] Jayavarman II - the founder of Angkor
Jayavarman II lived as a prince at the court of Sailendra in Java, whether as a royal hostage of Java's vassal kingdom, or for his education (or both), has not yet been established. Thus he brought the art and culture of Javanese Sailendran court to Cambodia. After he eventually returned to his home, the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called "Kambuja" by the Khmer. In the following years he extended his territory and eventually established his new capital of Hariharalaya near the modern Cambodian town of Roluos. He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 km to the northwest. In 802 he declared himself Chakravartin, in a ritual taken from the Indian-Hindu tradition. Thereby he not only became the divinely appointed and therefore uncontested ruler, but also simultaneously declared the independence of his kingdom from Java. Jayavarman II died in the year 834.
[edit] Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor
Jayavarman II's successors continually extended the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877 - 889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars, and he began extensive building projects, thanks to the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. He was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889 - 915), who established a new capital, Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor.
The city's central temple was built on Phnom Bakheng, a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. Under Yasovarman I the East Baray was also created, a massive water reservoir of 7.5 by 1.8 km.
A 12 or 13th century relief at the Bayon temple in Angkor depicts the Khmer army going to war against the Cham.
At the beginning of the 10th century the kingdom split. Jayavarman IV established a new capital at Koh Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor. Only with Rajendravarman II (reigned 944 - 968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He took up again the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area; not the least being the East Mebon, on an island in the middle of the East Baray, and several Buddhist temples and monasteries. In 950 the first war took place between Kambuja and the kingdom of Champa to the east (in the modern central Vietnam).
From 968 to 1001 reigned the son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V. After he had established himself as the new king over the other princes, his rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital near Yashodharapura, Jayenanagari. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars and artists. New temples were also established: the most important of these are Banteay Srei, considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone.
After the death of Jayavarman V a decade of conflict followed. Kings reigned only for a few years, and were successively violently replaced by their successors until eventually Suryavarman I (reigned 1010 - 1050) gained the throne. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and by military conquests. In the west he extended the kingdom to the modern Lopburi in Thailand, in the south to the Kra Isthmus. At Angkor, construction of the West Baray began under Suryavarman I, the second and even larger {8 by 2.2 km) water reservoir after the Eastern Baray.
[edit] Suryavarman II - Angkor Wat
The 11th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Only with Suryavarman II (reigned 1113 - 1150) was the kingdom united internally and extended externally. Under his rule, the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. Suryavarman II conquered the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya to the west (in today's central Thailand), and the area further west to the border with the kingdom of Bagan (modern Burma), in the south further parts of the Malay peninsula down to the kingdom of Grahi (corresponding roughly to the modern Thai province of Nakhon Si Thammarat), in the east several provinces of Champa and the countries in the north as far as the southern border of modern Laos. Suryavarman II's end is unclear. The last inscription, which mentions his name in connection with a planned invasion of Vietnam, is from the year 1145. He probably died during a military expedition between 1145 and 1150.
There followed another period in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177 Kambuja was defeated in a naval battle on the Tonle Sap lake by the army of the Chams, and was incorporated as a province of Champa.
[edit] Jayavarman VII - Angkor Thom
French map of Khmer empire.
The future king Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-1219) was already a military leader as prince under previous kings. After the Cham had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and regained the capital, Yasodharapura. In 1181 he ascended the throne and continued the war against the neighbouring eastern kingdom for a further 22 years, until the Khmer defeated Champa in 1203 and conquered large parts of its territory.
Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of the successful war against the Cham, but also because he was no tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors, because he unified the empire, and above all because of the building projects carried out under his rule. The new capital now called Angkor Thom (literally: "Great City") was built. In the centre, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon, with its towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara, each several metres high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm, Banteay Kdei and Neak Pean, as well as the reservoir of Srah Srang. Alongside, an extensive network of streets was laid down, which connected every town of the empire. Beside these streets 121 rest-houses were built for traders, officials and travellers. Not least of all, he established 102 hospitals.
[edit] Zhou Daguan - the last blooming
After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219-1243) ascended the throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As a warrior he was less successful. In the year 1220 the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from Champa. In the west, his Thai subjects rebelled, established the first Thai kingdom at Sukhothai and pushed back the Khmer. In the following 200 years, the Thais would become the chief rivals of Kambuja. Indravarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243-1295). In contrast to his predecessors, he was a Hindu and an aggressive opponent of Buddhism. He destroyed most of the Buddha statues in the empire (archaeologists estimate the number at over 10,000, of which few traces remain) and converted Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. From the outside, the empire was threatened in 1283 by the Mongols under Kublai Khan's general Sagatu. The king avoided war with his powerful opponent, who at this time ruled over all China, by paying annual tribute to him. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295-1309). The new king was a follower of Theravada Buddhism, a school of Buddhism which had arrived in southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the region.
In August of 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived at Angkor, and remained at the court of king Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. However, his stay is notable because Zhou Daguan later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal is today one of the most important sources of understanding of historical Angkor. Alongside descriptions of several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat, for which we have him to thank for the knowledge that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold), the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.
[edit] Decline and the end of Angkor
There are few historical records from the time following Srindravarman's reign. The last known inscription on a pillar is from the year 1327. No further large temples were established. Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: they were therefore no longer considered "devarajas", and there was no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood. The retreat from the concept of the devaraja may also have led to a loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers. The water-management apparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously three rice harvests per years were possible - a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja - the declining harvests further weakened the empire. Its western neighbour, the first Thai kingdom of Sukhothai,after repelling Angkorian hegemony, was conquered by another Thai kingdom, Ayutthaya, in 1350. After 1352 Ayutthaya became Angkor's rival. It launched several assaults on Kambuja, although these were repelled. In 1431, however, the superiority of Ayutthaya was too great, and the Thai army conquered Angkor.
The centre of the residual Khmer kingdom was in the south, in the region of today's Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings would have remained there, while a second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic - and therewith political - significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade centre on the Mekong. Costly construction projects and conflicts over power between the royal family sealed the end of the Khmer empire.
Ecological failure and infrastructural break down is a new alternative answer to the end of the Khmer Empire. The Great Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, travel and irrigation. The canals were used for the harvesting of rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. Failures include water shortage and flooding. To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would leave an enormous amount of consequences.1
In any event, there is evidence for a further period of use for Angkor. Under the rule of king Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566 - 1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back the Thai, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. From the 17th century there are inscriptions which testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer.
A plan of Angkor Wat created by a Japanese pilgrim from c. 1623 to 1636
The best-known tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year there in 1632.
[edit] Timeline of rulers
See also: Kings of Cambodia
[edit] References
1. Michael Freeman, Claude Jacques: Ancient Angkor, Asia Books, ISBN 974-8225-27-5
2. Vittorio Roveda: Khmer Mythology, River Books, ISBN 974-8225-37-2
3. Bruno Dagens (engl: Ruth Sharman): Angkor - Heart of an Asian Empire, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-30054-2
4. Dawn Rooney: Angkor: Cambodia's Fabulous Khmer Temples, Odyssey Publications, Ltd., ISBN 962-217-727-1
5. David Chandler: A History of Cambodia, Westview Press, ISBN 0-8133-3511-6
6. Zhou Daguan: The Customs of Cambodia, The Siam Society, ISBN 974-8359-68-9
7. Henri Mouhot: Travels in Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Annam, White Lotus Co, Ltd., ISBN 974-8434-03-6
8. Benjamin Walker, Angkor Empire: A History of the Khmer of Cambodia, Signet Press, Calcutta, 1995.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire"
Categories: Former countries in Asia | Former empires | 802 establishments | 1431 disestablishments | 1432 disestablishments | History of Cambodia | Historical Hindu empires | Indianized kingdoms | Kambojas
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Khmer Empire
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For other uses, see Khmer Empire.
អាណាចក្រខ្មែរ
Khmer Empire
←
802 – 1431 →
[[Image:
|250px|center|Location of Khmer Empire]]Map of Khmer Empire under Jayavarman VII (1200)
Capital Hariharalaya
(802-889)
Yasodharapura
(889-1431)
Koh Ker
(928-944)
Language(s) Khmer
Religion Buddhism, Hinduism
Government Monarchy/Theocracy
Emperor
- 802-850 Jayavarman II
- 889-900 Yasovarman I
- 1002-1050 Suryavarman I
- 1113-1150 Suryavarman II
- 1181-1218 Jayavarman VII
History
- Jayavarman II declared independence from Srivijaya under the Sailendra, proclaiming himself the divine king of Kambuja. 802, 802
- The first time of Surrender of Angkor 1352-1357
- The Second time of Surrender of Angkor 1393
- The Thai invaded Angkor. 1431, 1431
Currency Unknown
This article is part of
the History of Cambodia series
Early history of Cambodia
Funan (68 AD – 550 AD)
Chenla (550 AD – 802 AD)
Khmer Empire (802 AD – 1431 AD)
Charktomok (1437 AD – 1525 AD)
Lovek (1525 AD – 1593 AD)
Dark ages of Cambodia
(1593 – 1863)
Loss of Mekong Delta to Việt Nam
French Colonial Rule (1863–1953)
Post-Independence Cambodia
Cambodian Civil War (1967–1975)
Coup of 1970
Việt Nam War Incursion of 1970
Khmer Rouge Regime (1975–1979)
Cambodian–Vietnamese War (1975–1989)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1993)
1992–93 UNTAC
Modern Cambodia (1993–present)
Timeline
[edit this box]
The Khmer Empire was the largest empire of South East Asia based in what is now Cambodia. The empire, which seceded from the kingdom of Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised parts of modern-day Laos, Thailand,Vietnam and Indonesia. During the formation of the empire, Khmer had close cultural, political and trade relations with Java, and later with Srivijaya empire that lay beyond Khmer's southern border. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, which was the capital during the empire's zenith. Angkor bears testimony to the Khmer empire's immense power and wealth, as well as the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, until Theravada Buddhism prevailed after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century. Modern satellites have revealed Angkor to be the largest pre-industrial urban center in the world, larger than modern day New York.
The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the historical kingdom of Kambuja is also the history of the Khmer from the 9th to the 15th centuries.
From Kambuja itself - and so also from the Angkor region - no written records have survived other than stone inscriptions. Therefore the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilization is derived primarily from:
* archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation
* inscriptions on stela and on stones in the temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings
* reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life in the palace, market scenes and also the everyday lives of the population
* reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travellers.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor is conventionally dated to 802. In this year, king Jayavarman II had himself declared "Chakravartin" (king of the world).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Jayavarman II - the founder of Angkor
o 1.2 Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor
o 1.3 Suryavarman II - Angkor Wat
o 1.4 Jayavarman VII - Angkor Thom
o 1.5 Zhou Daguan - the last blooming
o 1.6 Decline and the end of Angkor
* 2 Timeline of rulers
* 3 References
[edit] History
[edit] Jayavarman II - the founder of Angkor
Jayavarman II lived as a prince at the court of Sailendra in Java, whether as a royal hostage of Java's vassal kingdom, or for his education (or both), has not yet been established. Thus he brought the art and culture of Javanese Sailendran court to Cambodia. After he eventually returned to his home, the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called "Kambuja" by the Khmer. In the following years he extended his territory and eventually established his new capital of Hariharalaya near the modern Cambodian town of Roluos. He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 km to the northwest. In 802 he declared himself Chakravartin, in a ritual taken from the Indian-Hindu tradition. Thereby he not only became the divinely appointed and therefore uncontested ruler, but also simultaneously declared the independence of his kingdom from Java. Jayavarman II died in the year 834.
[edit] Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor
Jayavarman II's successors continually extended the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877 - 889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars, and he began extensive building projects, thanks to the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. He was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889 - 915), who established a new capital, Yasodharapura - the first city of Angkor.
The city's central temple was built on Phnom Bakheng, a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. Under Yasovarman I the East Baray was also created, a massive water reservoir of 7.5 by 1.8 km.
A 12 or 13th century relief at the Bayon temple in Angkor depicts the Khmer army going to war against the Cham.
At the beginning of the 10th century the kingdom split. Jayavarman IV established a new capital at Koh Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor. Only with Rajendravarman II (reigned 944 - 968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He took up again the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area; not the least being the East Mebon, on an island in the middle of the East Baray, and several Buddhist temples and monasteries. In 950 the first war took place between Kambuja and the kingdom of Champa to the east (in the modern central Vietnam).
From 968 to 1001 reigned the son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V. After he had established himself as the new king over the other princes, his rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital near Yashodharapura, Jayenanagari. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars and artists. New temples were also established: the most important of these are Banteay Srei, considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone.
After the death of Jayavarman V a decade of conflict followed. Kings reigned only for a few years, and were successively violently replaced by their successors until eventually Suryavarman I (reigned 1010 - 1050) gained the throne. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and by military conquests. In the west he extended the kingdom to the modern Lopburi in Thailand, in the south to the Kra Isthmus. At Angkor, construction of the West Baray began under Suryavarman I, the second and even larger {8 by 2.2 km) water reservoir after the Eastern Baray.
[edit] Suryavarman II - Angkor Wat
The 11th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Only with Suryavarman II (reigned 1113 - 1150) was the kingdom united internally and extended externally. Under his rule, the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. Suryavarman II conquered the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya to the west (in today's central Thailand), and the area further west to the border with the kingdom of Bagan (modern Burma), in the south further parts of the Malay peninsula down to the kingdom of Grahi (corresponding roughly to the modern Thai province of Nakhon Si Thammarat), in the east several provinces of Champa and the countries in the north as far as the southern border of modern Laos. Suryavarman II's end is unclear. The last inscription, which mentions his name in connection with a planned invasion of Vietnam, is from the year 1145. He probably died during a military expedition between 1145 and 1150.
There followed another period in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177 Kambuja was defeated in a naval battle on the Tonle Sap lake by the army of the Chams, and was incorporated as a province of Champa.
[edit] Jayavarman VII - Angkor Thom
French map of Khmer empire.
The future king Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-1219) was already a military leader as prince under previous kings. After the Cham had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and regained the capital, Yasodharapura. In 1181 he ascended the throne and continued the war against the neighbouring eastern kingdom for a further 22 years, until the Khmer defeated Champa in 1203 and conquered large parts of its territory.
Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of the successful war against the Cham, but also because he was no tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors, because he unified the empire, and above all because of the building projects carried out under his rule. The new capital now called Angkor Thom (literally: "Great City") was built. In the centre, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon, with its towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara, each several metres high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm, Banteay Kdei and Neak Pean, as well as the reservoir of Srah Srang. Alongside, an extensive network of streets was laid down, which connected every town of the empire. Beside these streets 121 rest-houses were built for traders, officials and travellers. Not least of all, he established 102 hospitals.
[edit] Zhou Daguan - the last blooming
After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219-1243) ascended the throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As a warrior he was less successful. In the year 1220 the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from Champa. In the west, his Thai subjects rebelled, established the first Thai kingdom at Sukhothai and pushed back the Khmer. In the following 200 years, the Thais would become the chief rivals of Kambuja. Indravarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243-1295). In contrast to his predecessors, he was a Hindu and an aggressive opponent of Buddhism. He destroyed most of the Buddha statues in the empire (archaeologists estimate the number at over 10,000, of which few traces remain) and converted Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. From the outside, the empire was threatened in 1283 by the Mongols under Kublai Khan's general Sagatu. The king avoided war with his powerful opponent, who at this time ruled over all China, by paying annual tribute to him. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295-1309). The new king was a follower of Theravada Buddhism, a school of Buddhism which had arrived in southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the region.
In August of 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived at Angkor, and remained at the court of king Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. However, his stay is notable because Zhou Daguan later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal is today one of the most important sources of understanding of historical Angkor. Alongside descriptions of several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat, for which we have him to thank for the knowledge that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold), the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.
[edit] Decline and the end of Angkor
There are few historical records from the time following Srindravarman's reign. The last known inscription on a pillar is from the year 1327. No further large temples were established. Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: they were therefore no longer considered "devarajas", and there was no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood. The retreat from the concept of the devaraja may also have led to a loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers. The water-management apparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously three rice harvests per years were possible - a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja - the declining harvests further weakened the empire. Its western neighbour, the first Thai kingdom of Sukhothai,after repelling Angkorian hegemony, was conquered by another Thai kingdom, Ayutthaya, in 1350. After 1352 Ayutthaya became Angkor's rival. It launched several assaults on Kambuja, although these were repelled. In 1431, however, the superiority of Ayutthaya was too great, and the Thai army conquered Angkor.
The centre of the residual Khmer kingdom was in the south, in the region of today's Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings would have remained there, while a second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic - and therewith political - significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade centre on the Mekong. Costly construction projects and conflicts over power between the royal family sealed the end of the Khmer empire.
Ecological failure and infrastructural break down is a new alternative answer to the end of the Khmer Empire. The Great Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, travel and irrigation. The canals were used for the harvesting of rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. Failures include water shortage and flooding. To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would leave an enormous amount of consequences.1
In any event, there is evidence for a further period of use for Angkor. Under the rule of king Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566 - 1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back the Thai, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. From the 17th century there are inscriptions which testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer.
A plan of Angkor Wat created by a Japanese pilgrim from c. 1623 to 1636
The best-known tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year there in 1632.
[edit] Timeline of rulers
See also: Kings of Cambodia
[edit] References
1. Michael Freeman, Claude Jacques: Ancient Angkor, Asia Books, ISBN 974-8225-27-5
2. Vittorio Roveda: Khmer Mythology, River Books, ISBN 974-8225-37-2
3. Bruno Dagens (engl: Ruth Sharman): Angkor - Heart of an Asian Empire, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-30054-2
4. Dawn Rooney: Angkor: Cambodia's Fabulous Khmer Temples, Odyssey Publications, Ltd., ISBN 962-217-727-1
5. David Chandler: A History of Cambodia, Westview Press, ISBN 0-8133-3511-6
6. Zhou Daguan: The Customs of Cambodia, The Siam Society, ISBN 974-8359-68-9
7. Henri Mouhot: Travels in Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Annam, White Lotus Co, Ltd., ISBN 974-8434-03-6
8. Benjamin Walker, Angkor Empire: A History of the Khmer of Cambodia, Signet Press, Calcutta, 1995.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire"
Categories: Former countries in Asia | Former empires | 802 establishments | 1431 disestablishments | 1432 disestablishments | History of Cambodia | Historical Hindu empires | Indianized kingdoms | Kambojas
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FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARD FRS 39
OBJECTIVE
SCOPE 1 - 7
DEFINITIONS 8 - 26
From FRS 32 8 - 9
Additional Definitions 10
Definition of a Derivative 10
Definitions of Four Categories of Financial Assets 10
Definitions Relating to Recognition and Measurement 10
Definitions Relating to Hedge Accounting 10
Other Definitions 10
Elaboration on the Definitions 11 - 21
Equity Instrument 11 - 12
Derivatives 13 - 16
Transaction Costs 17
Liability Held for Trading 18
Loans and Receivables Originated by the Enterprise 19-20
Available-for-Sale Financial Assets 21
Embedded Derivatives 22 - 26
RECOGNITION 27 - 62
Initial Recognition 27 - 29
Trade Date vs. Settlement Date 30 - 34
Derecognition 35 - 62
Derecognition of a Financial Asset 35 - 43
Derecognition of Part of a Financial Asset 44 - 47
Asset Derecognition Coupled with a New Financial Asset or Liability 48 - 53
Derecognition of a Financial Liability 54 - 61
Derecognition of Part of a Financial Liability Coupled with a New Financial Asset or Liability 62
MEASUREMENT 63 - 162
Initial Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities 63 - 64
Subsequent Measurement of Financial Assets 65 - 89
Held-to-Maturity Investments 76 - 89
Subsequent Measurement of Financial Liabilities 90 - 91
Fair Value Measurement Considerations 92 - 99
Gains and Losses on Remeasurement to Fair Value 100 - 104
Gains and Losses on Financial Assets and Liabilities Not Remeasured to Fair Value 105
Impairment and Uncollectability of Financial Assets 106 - 116
Financial Assets Carried at Amortised Cost 108 - 112
Interest Income After Impairment Recognition 113
Financial Assets Remeasured to Fair Value 114 - 116
Fair Value Accounting in Certain Financial Services Industries 117
Hedging 118 - 162
Hedging Instruments 119 - 123
Hedged Items 124 - 132
Hedge Accounting 133 - 142
Assessing Hedge Effectiveness 143 - 149
Fair Value Hedges 150 - 154
Cash Flow Hedges 155 - 160
Hedges of a Net Investment in a Foreign Entity 161
If a Hedge Does Not Qualify for Special Hedge Accounting 162
DISCLOSURE 163 - 167
EFFECTIVE DATE AND TRANSITION 168 - 169
Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement
The standards, which have been set in bold italic type, should be read in the context of the background material and implementation guidance in this Standard, and in the context of the Preface to Financial Reporting Standard. Financial Reporting Standards are not intended to apply to immaterial items.
Objective
The objective of this Standard is to establish principles for recognising, measuring, and disclosing information about financial instruments in the financial statements of business enterprises.
Scope
1. This Standard should be applied by all enterprises to all financial instruments except:
1.
those interests in subsidiaries, associates, and joint ventures that are accounted for under FRS 27, Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Investments in Subsidiaries; FRS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates; and FRS 31, Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures. However, an enterprise applies this Standard in its consolidated financial statements to account for an interest in a subsidiary, associate, or joint venture that (a) is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its subsequent disposal in the near future; or (b) operates under severe long-term restrictions that significantly impair its ability to transfer funds to the enterprise. In these cases, the disclosure requirements in FRS 27, FRS 28, and FRS 31 apply in addition to those in this Standard;
2.
rights and obligations under leases, to which FRS 17, Leases, applies; however, (i) lease receivables recognised on a lessor's balance sheet are subject to the derecognition provisions of this Standard (paragraphs 35-62 and 167(d)) and (ii) this Standard does apply to derivatives that are embedded in leases (see paragraphs 22-26);
3.
employers' assets and liabilities under employee benefit plans, to which FRS 19, Employee Benefits, applies;
4.
rights and obligations under insurance contracts as defined in paragraph 3 of FRS 32, Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation, but this Standard does apply to derivatives that are embedded in insurance contracts (see paragraphs 22-26);
5.
equity instruments issued by the reporting enterprise including options, warrants, and other financial instruments that are classified as shareholders' equity of the reporting enterprise (however, the holder of such instruments is required to apply this Standard to those instruments);
6.
financial guarantee contracts, including letters of credit, that provide for payments to be made if the debtor fails to make payment when due (FRS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets, provides guidance for recognising and measuring financial guarantees, warranty obligations, and other similar instruments). In contrast, financial guarantee contracts are subject to this Standard if they provide for payments to be made in response to changes in a specified interest rate, security price, commodity price, credit rating, foreign exchange rate, index of prices or rates, or other variable (sometimes called the 'underlying'). Also, this Standard does require recognition of financial guarantees incurred or retained as a result of the derecognition standards set out in paragraphs 35-62;
7.
contracts for contingent consideration in a business combination (see paragraphs 65-76 of FRS 22, Business Combinations);
8.
contracts that require a payment based on climatic, geological, or other physical variables (see paragraph 2), but this Standard does apply to other types of derivatives that are embedded in such contracts (see paragraphs 22-26).
2. Contracts that require a payment based on climatic, geological, or other physical variables are commonly used as insurance policies. (Those based on climatic variables are sometimes referred to as weather derivatives.) In such cases, the payment made is based on an amount of loss to the enterprise. Rights and obligations under insurance contracts are excluded from the scope of this Standard by paragraph 1(d). It is recognised that the payout under some of these contracts is unrelated to the amount of an enterprise's loss. While such derivatives have been left within the scope of the Standard, further study is needed to develop operational definitions that distinguish between 'insurance-type' and 'derivative-type' contracts.
3. This Standard does not change the requirements relating to:
1.
accounting by a parent for investments in subsidiaries in the parent's separate financial statements as set out in paragraphs 28-30 of FRS 27;
2.
accounting by an investor for investments in associates in the investor's separate financial statements as set out in paragraphs 10-13 of FRS 28;
3.
accounting by a joint venturer for investments in joint ventures in the venturer's or investor's separate financial statements as set out in paragraphs 35 and 42 of FRS 31; or
4.
employee benefit plans that comply with FRS 26, Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans.
4 . Sometimes, an enterprise makes what it views as a 'strategic investment' in equity securities issued by another enterprise, with the intent of establishing or maintaining a long-term operating relationship with the enterprise in which the investment is made. The investor enterprise uses FRS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates, to determine whether the equity method of accounting is appropriate for such an investment because the investor has significant influence over the associate. Similarly, the investor enterprise uses FRS 31, Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures, to determine whether proportionate consolidation or the equity method is appropriate for such an investment. If neither the equity method nor proportionate consolidation is appropriate, the enterprise will apply this Standard to that strategic investment.
5 . This Standard applies to the financial assets and liabilities of insurance companies other than rights and obligations arising under insurance contracts, which are excluded by paragraph 1(d). See paragraphs 22-26 for guidance on financial instruments that are embedded in insurance contracts.
6. This Standard should be applied to commodity-based contracts that give either party the right to settle in cash or some other financial instrument, with the exception of commodity contracts that (a) were entered into and continue to meet the enterprise's expected purchase, sale, or usage requirements, (b) were designated for that purpose at their inception, and (c) are expected to be settled by delivery.
7. If an enterprise follows a pattern of entering into offsetting contracts that effectively accomplish settlement on a net basis, those contracts are not entered into to meet the enterprise's expected purchase, sale, or usage requirements.
Definitions
From FRS 32
8. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified in FRS 32:
A financial instrument is any contract that gives rise to both a financial asset of one enterprise and a financial liability or equity instrument of another enterprise.
A financial asset is any asset that is:
1.
cash;
2.
a contractual right to receive cash or another financial asset from another enterprise;
3.
a contractual right to exchange financial instruments with another enterprise under conditions that are potentially favourable; or
4.
an equity instrument of another enterprise.
A financial liability is any liability that is a contractual obligation:
1.
to deliver cash or another financial asset to another enterprise; or
2.
to exchange financial instruments with another enterprise under conditions that are potentially unfavourable.
An equity instrument is any contract that evidences a residual interest in the assets of an enterprise after deducting all of its liabilities (see paragraph 11).
Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction.
9. For purposes of the foregoing definitions, FRS 32 states that the term 'enterprise' includes individuals, partnerships, incorporated bodies, and government agencies.
Additional Definitions
10 . The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:
Definition of a Derivative
A derivative is a financial instrument:
1.
whose value changes in response to the change in a specified interest rate, security price, commodity price, foreign exchange rate, index of prices or rates, a credit rating or credit index, or similar variable (sometimes called the 'underlying');
2.
that requires no initial net investment or little initial net investment relative to other types of contracts that have a similar response to changes in market conditions; and
3.
that is settled at a future date.
Definitions of Four Categories of Financial Assets
A financial asset or liability held for trading is one that was acquired or incurred principally for the purpose of generating a profit from short-term fluctuations in price or dealer's margin. A financial asset should be classified as held for trading if, regardless of why it was acquired, it is part of a portfolio for which there is evidence of a recent actual pattern of short-term profit-taking (see paragraph 21). Derivative financial assets and derivative financial liabilities are always deemed held for trading unless they are designated and effective hedging instruments. (See paragraph 18 for an example of a liability held for trading.)
Held-to-maturity investments are financial assets with fixed or determinable payments and fixed maturity that an enterprise has the positive intent and ability to hold to maturity (see paragraphs 80-92) other than loans and receivables originated by the enterprise,
Loans and receivables originated by the enterprise are financial assets that are created by the enterprise by providing money, goods, or services directly to a debtor, other than those that are originated with the intent to be sold immediately or in the short term, which should be classified as held for trading. Loans and receivables originated by the enterprise are not included in held-to-maturity investments but, rather, are classified separately under this Standard (see paragraphs 19-20).
Available-for-sale financial assets are those financial assets that are not (a) loans and receivables originated by the enterprise, (b) held-to-maturity investments, or (c) financial assets held for trading (see paragraph 21).
Definitions Relating to Recognition and Measurement
Amortised cost of a financial asset or financial liability is the amount at which the financial asset or liability was measured at initial recognition minus principal repayments, plus or minus the cumulative amortisation of any difference between that initial amount and the maturity amount, and minus any write-down (directly or through the use of an allowance account) for impairment or uncollectability.
The effective interest method is a method of calculating amortisation using the effective interest rate of a financial asset or financial liability. The effective interest rate is the rate that exactly discounts the expected stream of future cash payments through maturity or the next market-based repricing date to the current net carrying amount of the financial asset or financial liability. That computation should include all fees and points paid or received between parties to the contract. The effective interest rate is sometimes termed the level yield to maturity or to the next repricing date, and is the internal rate of return of the financial asset or financial liability for that period. (See FRS 18, Revenue, paragraph 30, and FRS 32, paragraph 61.)
Transaction costs are incremental costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition or disposal of a financial asset or liability (see paragraph 17).
A firm commitment is a binding agreement for the exchange of a specified quantity of resources at a specified price on a specified future date or dates.
Control of an asset is the power to obtain the future economic benefits that flow from the asset.
Derecognise means remove a financial asset or liability, or a portion of a financial asset or liability, from an enterprise's balance sheet.
Definitions Relating to Hedge Accounting
Hedging, for accounting purposes, means designating one or more hedging instruments so that their change in fair value is an offset, in whole or in part, to the change in fair value or cash flows of a hedged item.
A hedged item is an asset, liability, firm commitment, or forecasted future transaction that (a) exposes the enterprise to risk of changes in fair value or changes in future cash flows and that (b) for hedge accounting purposes, is designated as being hedged (paragraphs 127-135 elaborate on the definition of hedged items).
A hedging instrument, for hedge accounting purposes, is a designated derivative or (in limited circumstances) another financial asset or liability whose fair value or cash flows are expected to offset changes in the fair value or cash flows of a designated hedged item (paragraphs 122-126 elaborate on the definition of a hedging instrument). Under this Standard, a non-derivative financial asset or liability may be designated as a hedging instrument for hedge accounting purposes only if it hedges the risk of changes in foreign currency exchange rates.
Hedge effectiveness is the degree to which offsetting changes in fair value or cash flows attributable to a hedged risk are achieved by the hedging instrument (see paragraphs 146-152).
Other Definitions
Securitisation is the process by which financial assets are transformed into securities.
A repurchase agreement is an agreement to transfer a financial asset to another party in exchange for cash or other consideration and a concurrent obligation to reacquire the financial asset at a future date for an amount equal to the cash or other consideration exchanged plus interest.
Elaboration on the Definitions
Equity Instrument
11. An enterprise may have a contractual obligation that it can settle either by payment of financial assets or by payment in the form of its own equity securities. In such a case, if the number of equity securities required to settle the obligation varies with changes in their fair value so that the total fair value of the equity securities paid always equals the amount of the contractual obligation, the holder of the obligation is not exposed to gain or loss from fluctuations in the price of the equity securities. Such an obligation should be accounted for as a financial liability of the enterprise and, therefore, is not excluded from the scope of this Standard by paragraph 1(e).
12. An enterprise may have a forward, option, or other derivative instrument whose value changes in response to something other than the market price of the enterprise's own equity securities but that the enterprise can choose to settle or is required to settle in its own equity securities. In such case, the enterprise accounts for the instrument as a derivative instrument, not as an equity instrument, because the value of such an instrument is unrelated to the changes in the equity of the enterprise.
Derivatives
13. Typical examples of derivatives are futures and forward, swap, and option contracts. A derivative usually has a notional amount, which is an amount of currency, a number of shares, a number of units of weight or volume, or other units specified in the contract. However, a derivative instrument does not require the holder or writer to invest or receive the notional amount at the inception of the contract. Alternatively, a derivative could require a fixed payment as a result of some future event that is unrelated to a notional amount. For example, a contract may require a fixed payment of 1,000 if six-month LIBOR increases by 100 basis points. In this example, a notional amount is not specified.
14. Commitments to buy or sell non-financial assets and liabilities that are intended to be settled by the reporting enterprise by making or taking delivery in the normal course of business, and for which there is no practice of settling net (either with the counterparty or by entering into offsetting contracts), are not accounted for as derivatives but rather as executory contracts. Settling net means making a cash payment based on the change in fair value.
15. One of the defining conditions of a derivative is that it requires little initial net investment relative to other contracts that have a similar response to market conditions. An option contract meets that definition because the premium is significantly less than the investment that would be required to obtain the underlying financial instrument to which the option is linked.
16. If an enterprise contracts to buy a financial asset on terms that require delivery of the asset within the time frame established generally by regulation or convention in the market place concerned (sometimes called a 'regular way' contract'), the fixed price commitment between trade date and settlement date is a forward contract that meets the definition of a derivative. This Standard provides for special accounting for such regular way contracts (see paragraphs 30-34).
Transaction Costs
17. Transaction costs include fees and commissions paid to agents, advisers, brokers, and dealers; levies by regulatory agencies and securities exchanges; and transfer taxes and duties. Transaction costs do not include debt premium or discount, financing costs, or allocations of internal administrative or holding costs.
Liability Held for Trading
18. Liabilities held for trading include (a) derivative liabilities that are not hedging instruments and (b) the obligation to deliver securities borrowed by a short seller (an enterprise that sells securities that it does not yet own). The fact that a liability is used to fund trading activities does not make that liability one held for trading.
Loans and Receivables Originated by the Enterprise
19. A loan acquired by an enterprise as a participation in a loan from another lender is considered to be originated by the enterprise provided it is funded by the enterprise on the date that the loan is originated by the other lender. However, the acquisition of an interest in a pool of loans or receivables, for example in connection with a securitisation, is a purchase, not an origination, because the enterprise did not provide money, goods, or services directly to the underlying debtors nor acquire its interest through a participation with another lender on the date the underlying loans or receivables were originated. Also, a transaction that is, in substance, a purchase of a loan that was previously originated - for example, a loan to an unconsolidated special purpose entity that is made to provide funding for its purchases of loans originated by others - is not a loan originated by the enterprise. A loan acquired by an enterprise in a business combination is considered to be originated by the acquiring enterprise provided that it was similarly classified by the acquired enterprise. The loan is measured at acquisition under FRS 22, Business Combinations. A loan acquired through a syndication is an originated loan because each lender shares in the origination of the loan and provides money directly to the debtor.
20. Loans or receivables that are purchased by an enterprise, rather than originated, are classified as held to maturity, available for sale, or held for trading, as appropriate.
Available-for-Sale Financial Assets
21. A financial asset is classified as available for sale if it does not properly belong in one of the three other categories of financial assets - held for trading, held to maturity, and loans and receivables originated by the enterprise. A financial asset is classified as held for trading, rather than available for sale, if it is part of a portfolio of similar assets for which there is a pattern of trading for the purpose of generating a profit from short-term fluctuations in price or dealer's margin.
Embedded Derivatives
22. Sometimes, a derivative may be a component of a hybrid (combined) financial instrument that includes both the derivative and a host contract - with the effect that some of the cash flows of the combined instrument vary in a similar way to a stand-alone derivative. Such derivatives are sometimes known as 'embedded derivatives'. An embedded derivative causes some or all of the cash flows that otherwise would be required by the contract to be modified based on a specified interest rate, security price, commodity price, foreign exchange rate, index of prices or rates, or other variable.
23. An embedded derivative should be separated from the host contract and accounted for as a derivative under this Standard if all of the following conditions are met:
1.
the economic characteristics and risks of the embedded derivative are not closely related to the economic characteristics and risks of the host contract;
2.
a separate instrument with the same terms as the embedded derivative would meet the definition of a derivative; and
3.
the hybrid (combined) instrument is not measured at fair value with changes in fair value reported in net profit or loss.
If an embedded derivative is separated, the host contract itself should be accounted for (a) under this Standard if it is, itself, a financial instrument and (b) in accordance with other appropriate Financial Reporting Standards if it is not a financial instrument.
24. The economic characteristics and risks of an embedded derivative are not considered to be closely related to the host contract (paragraph 23(a)) in the following examples. In these circumstances, assuming the conditions in paragraphs 23(b) and 23(c) are also met, an enterprise accounts for the embedded derivative separately from the host contract under this Standard:
1.
a put option on an equity instrument held by an enterprise is not closely related to the host equity instrument;
2.
a call option embedded in an equity instrument held by an enterprise is not closely related to the host equity instrument from the perspective of the holder (from the issuer's perspective, the call option is an equity instrument of the issuer if the issuer is required to or has the right to require settlement in shares, in which case it is excluded from the scope of this Standard);
3.
an option or automatic provision to extend the term (maturity date) of debt is not closely related to the host debt contract held by an enterprise unless there is a concurrent adjustment to the market rate of interest at the time of the extension;
4.
equity-indexed interest or principal payments - by which the amount of interest or principal is indexed to the value of equity shares - are not closely related to the host debt instrument or insurance contract because the risks inherent in the host and the embedded derivative are dissimilar;
5.
commodity-indexed interest or principal payments - by which the amount of interest or principal is indexed to the price of a commodity - are not closely related to the host debt instrument or insurance contract because the risks inherent in the host and the embedded derivative are dissimilar;
6.
an equity conversion feature embedded in a debt instrument is not closely related to the host debt instrument;
7.
a call or put option on debt that is issued at a significant discount or premium is not closely related to the debt except for debt (such as a zero coupon bond) that is callable or puttable at its accreted amount; and
8.
arrangements known as credit derivatives that are embedded in a host debt instrument and that allow one party (the 'beneficiary') to transfer the credit risk of an asset, which it may or may not actually own, to another party (the 'guarantor') are not closely related to the host debt instrument. Such credit derivatives allow the guarantor to assume the credit risk associated with a reference asset without directly purchasing it.
25. On the other hand, the economic characteristics and risks of an embedded derivative are considered to be closely related to the economic characteristics and risks of the host contract in the following examples. In these circumstances, an enterprise does not account for the embedded derivative separately from the host contract under this Standard:
1.
the embedded derivative is linked to an interest rate or interest rate index that can change the amount of interest that would otherwise be paid or received on the host debt contract (that is, this Standard does not permit floating rate debt to be treated as fixed rate debt with an embedded derivative);
2.
an embedded floor or cap on interest rates is considered to be closely related to the interest rate on a debt instrument if the cap is at or above the market rate of interest or if the floor is at or below the market rate of interest when the instrument is issued, and the cap or floor is not leveraged in relation to the host instrument;
3.
the embedded derivative is a stream of principal or interest payments that are denominated in a foreign currency. Such a derivative is not separated from the host contract because FRS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, requires that foreign currency translation gains and losses on the entire host monetary item be recognised in net profit or loss;
4.
the host contract is not a financial instrument and it requires payments denominated in (i) the currency of the primary economic environment in which any substantial party to that contract operates or (ii) the currency in which the price of the related good or service that is acquired or delivered is routinely denominated in international commerce (for example, the U.S. dollar for crude oil transactions). That is, such contract is not regarded as a host contract with an embedded foreign currency derivative;
5.
the embedded derivative is a prepayment option with an exercise price that would not result in a significant gain or loss;
6.
the embedded derivative is a prepayment option that is embedded in an interest-only or principal-only strip that (i) initially resulted from separating the right to receive contractual cash flows of a financial instrument that, in and of itself, did not contain an embedded derivative and that (ii) does not contain any terms not present in the original host debt contract;
7.
with regard to a host contract that is a lease, the embedded derivative is (i) an inflation-related index such as an index of lease payments to a consumer price index (provided that the lease is not leveraged and the index relates to inflation in the enterprise's own economic environment), (ii) contingent rentals based on related sales, and (iii) contingent rentals based on variable interest rates; or
8.
the embedded derivative is an interest rate or interest rate index that does not alter the net interest payments that otherwise would be paid on the host contract in such a way that the holder would not recover substantially all of its recorded investment or (in the case of a derivative that is a liability) the issuer would pay a rate more than twice the market rate at inception.
26. If an enterprise is required by this Standard to separate an embedded derivative from its host contract but is unable to separately measure the embedded derivative either at acquisition or at a subsequent financial reporting date, it should treat the entire combined contract as a financial instrument held for trading.
Recognition
Initial Recognition
27. An enterprise should recognise a financial asset or financial liability on its balance sheet when, and only when, it becomes a party to the contractual provisions of the instrument. (See paragraph 30 with respect to 'regular way' purchases of financial assets.)
28. As a consequence of the principle in the preceding paragraph, an enterprise recognises all of its contractual rights or obligations under derivatives in its balance sheet as assets or liabilities.
29. The following are some examples of applying the principle in paragraph 27:
1.
unconditional receivables and payables are recognised as assets or liabilities when the enterprise becomes a party to the contract and, as a consequence, has a legal right to receive, or a legal obligation to pay, cash;
2.
assets to be acquired and liabilities to be incurred as a result of a firm commitment to purchase or sell goods or services are not recognised under present accounting practice until at least one of the parties has performed under the agreement such that it either is entitled to receive an asset or is obligated to disburse an asset. For example, an enterprise that receives a firm order does not recognise an asset (and the enterprise that places the order does not recognise a liability) at the time of the commitment but, rather, delays recognition until the ordered goods or services have been shipped, delivered, or rendered;
3.
in contrast to (b) above, however, a forward contract - a commitment to purchase or sell a specified financial instrument or commodity subject to this Standard on a future date at a specified price - is recognised as an asset or a liability on the commitment date, rather than waiting until the closing date on which the exchange actually takes place. When an enterprise becomes a party to a forward contract, the fair values of the right and obligation are often equal, so that the net fair value of the forward is zero, and only any net fair value of the right and obligation is recognised as an asset or liability. However, each party is exposed to the price risk that is the subject of the contract from that date. Such a forward contract satisfies the recognition principle of paragraph 27, from the perspectives of both the buyer and the seller, at the time the enterprises become parties to the contract, even though it may have a zero net value at that date. The fair value of the contract may become a net asset or liability in the future depending on, among other things, the time value of money and the value of the underlying instrument or commodity that is the subject of the forward;
4.
financial options are recognised as assets or liabilities when the holder or writer becomes a party to the contract; and
5.
planned future transactions, no matter how likely, are not assets and liabilities of an enterprise since the enterprise, as of the financial reporting date, has not become a party to a contract requiring future receipt or delivery of assets arising out of the future transactions.
Trade Date vs. Settlement Date
30. A 'regular way' purchase or sale of financial assets should be recognised using either trade date accounting or settlement date accounting as described in paragraphs 32 and 33. The method used should be applied consistently for all purchases and sales of financial assets that belong to the same category of financial assets defined in paragraph 10.
31. A contract for the purchase or sale of financial assets that requires delivery of the assets within the time frame generally established by regulation or convention in the market place concerned (sometimes called a 'regular way' contract) is a financial instrument as described in this Standard. The fixed price commitment between trade date and settlement date meets the definition of a derivative - it is a forward contract. However, because of the short duration of the commitment, such a contract is not recognised as a derivative financial instrument under this Standard.
32. The trade date is the date that an enterprise commits to purchase or sell an asset. Trade date accounting refers to (a) the recognition of an asset to be received and the liability to pay for it on the trade date and (b) the derecognition of an asset that is sold and the recognition of a receivable from the buyer for payment on the trade date. Generally, interest does not start to accrue on the asset and corresponding liability until the settlement date when title passes.
33. The settlement date is the date that an asset is delivered to or by an enterprise. Settlement date accounting refers to (a) the recognition of an asset on the day it is transferred to an enterprise and (b) the derecognition of an asset on the day that it is transferred by the enterprise. When settlement date accounting is applied, under paragraph 106 an enterprise will account for any change in the fair value of the asset to be received during the period between the trade date and the settlement date in the same way as it will account for the acquired asset under this Standard. That is, the value change is not recognised for assets carried at cost or amortised cost; it is recognised in net profit or loss for assets classified as trading; and it is recognised in net profit or loss or in equity (as appropriate under paragraph 103) for assets classified as available for sale.
34. The following example illustrates the application of paragraphs 30-33 and later parts of this Standard that specify measurement and recognition of changes in fair values for various types of financial assets. On 29 December 20x1, an enterprise commits to purchase a financial asset for 1,000 (including transaction costs), which is its fair value on commitment (trade) date. On 31 December 20x1 (financial year end) and on 4 January 20x2 (settlement date) the fair value of the asset is 1,002 and 1,003, respectively. The amounts to be recorded for the asset will depend on how it is classified and whether trade date or settlement date accounting is used, as shown in the two tables below:
SETTLEMENT DATE ACCOUNTING
Balances Held-to-Maturity Investments - Carried at Amortised Cost Available-for-Sale Assets - Remeasured to Fair Value with Changes in Equity Assets Held for Trading and Available-for-Sale Assets - Remeasured to Fair Value with Changes in Profit or Loss
29 December 20x1
Financial asset
Liability
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
31 December 20x1
Receivable
Financial asset
Liability
Equity (fair value adjustment)
Retained earnings
(through net profit
or loss)
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
2
- -
- -
(2)
- -
2
- -
- -
- -
(2)
4 January 20x2
Receivable
Financial asset
Liability
Equity (fair value adjustment)
Retained earnings
(through net profit
or loss)
- -
1,000
- -
- -
- -
- -
1,003
- -
(3)
- -
- -
1,003
- -
- -
(3)
TRADE DATE ACCOUNTING
Balances Held-to-Maturity Investments - Carried at Amortised Cost Available-for-Sale Assets - Remeasured to Fair Value with Changes in Equity Assets Held for Trading and Available-for-Sale Assets - Remeasured to Fair Value with Changes in Profit or Loss
29 December 20x1
Financial asset
Liability
1,000
(1,000)
1,000
(1,000)
1,000
(1,000)
31 December 20x1
Receivable
Financial asset
Liability
Equity (fair value adjustment)
Retained earnings
(through net profit
or loss)
- -
1,000
(1,000)
- -
- -
- -
1,002
(1,000)
(2)
- -
- -
1,002
(1,000)
- -
(2)
4 January 20x2
Receivable
Financial asset
Liability
Equity (fair value adjustment)
Retained earnings
(through net profit
or loss)
- -
1,000
- -
- -
- -
- -
1,003
- -
(3)
- -
- -
1,003
- -
- -
(3)
Derecognition
Derecognition of a Financial Asset
35. An enterprise should derecognise a financial asset or a portion of a financial asset when, and only when, the enterprise loses control of the contractual rights that comprise the financial asset (or a portion of the financial asset). An enterprise loses such control if it realises the rights to benefits specified in the contract, the rights expire, or the enterprise surrenders those rights.
36. If a financial asset is transferred to another enterprise but the transfer does not satisfy the conditions for derecognition in paragraph 35, the transferor accounts for the transaction as a collateralised borrowing. In that case, the transferor's right to reacquire the asset is not a derivative.
37. Determining whether an enterprise has lost control of a financial asset depends both on the enterprise's position and that of the transferee. Consequently, if the position of either enterprise indicates that the transferor has retained control, the transferor should not remove the asset from its balance sheet.
38. A transferor has not lost control of a transferred financial asset and, therefore, the asset is not derecognised if, for example:
1.
the transferor has the right to reacquire the transferred asset unless either (i) the asset is readily obtainable in the market or (ii) the reacquisition price is fair value at the time of reacquisition;
2.
the transferor is both entitled and obligated to repurchase or redeem the transferred asset on terms that effectively provide the transferee with a lender's return on the assets received in exchange for the transferred asset. A lender's return is one that is not materially different from that which could be obtained on a loan to the transferor that is fully secured by the transferred asset; or
3.
the asset transferred is not readily obtainable in the market and the transferor has retained substantially all of the risks and returns of ownership through a total return swap with the transferee or has retained substantially all of the risks of ownership through an unconditional put option on the transferred asset held by the transferee (a total return swap provides the market returns and credit risks to one of the parties in return for an interest index to the other party, such as a LIBOR payment).
39. Under paragraph 38(a), a transferred asset is not derecognised if the transferor has the right to repurchase the asset at a fixed price and the asset is not readily obtainable in the market, because the fixed price is not necessarily fair value at the time of reacquisition. For instance, a transfer of a group of mortgage loans that gives the transferor the right to reacquire those same loans at a fixed price would not result in derecognition.
40. A transferor may be both entitled and obligated to repurchase or redeem an asset by (a) a forward purchase contract, (b) a call option held and a put option written with approximately the same strike price, or (c) in other ways. However, neither the forward purchase contract in (a) nor the combination of options in (b) is sufficient, by itself, to maintain control over a transferred asset if the repurchase price is fair value at the time of repurchase.
41. A transferor generally has lost control of a transferred financial asset only if the transferee has the ability to obtain the benefits of the transferred asset. That ability is demonstrated, for example, if the transferee:
1.
is free either to sell or to pledge approximately the full fair value of the transferred asset; or
2.
is a special-purpose entity whose permissible activities are limited, and either the special purpose entity itself or the holders of beneficial interests in that entity have the ability to obtain substantially all of the benefits of the transferred asset
That ability may be demonstrated in other ways.
42. Neither paragraph 38 nor paragraph 41 is viewed in isolation. For example, a bank transfers a loan to another bank, but to preserve the relationship of the transferor bank with its customer, the acquiring bank is not allowed to sell or pledge the loan. Although the inability to sell or pledge would suggest that the transferee has not obtained control, in this instance the transfer is a sale provided that the transferor does not have the right or ability to reacquire the transferred asset.
43. On derecognition, the difference between (a) the carrying amount of an asset (or portion of an asset) transferred to another party and (b) the sum of (i) the proceeds received or receivable and (ii) any prior adjustment to reflect the fair value of that asset that had been reported in equity should be included in net profit or loss for the period.
Derecognition of Part of a Financial Asset
44. If an enterprise transfers a part of a financial asset to others while retaining a part, the carrying amount of the financial asset should be allocated between the part retained and the part sold based on their relative fair values on the date of sale. A gain or loss should be recognised based on the proceeds for the portion sold. In the rare circumstance that the fair value of the part of the asset that is retained cannot be measured reliably, then that asset should be recorded at zero. The entire carrying amount of the financial asset should be attributed to the portion sold, and a gain or loss should be recognised equal to the difference between (a) the proceeds and (b) the previous carrying amount of the financial asset plus or minus any prior adjustment that had been reported in equity to reflect the fair value of that asset (a 'cost recovery' approach).
45. Examples of paragraph 44 are:
1.
separating the principal and interest cash flows of a bond and selling some of them to another party while retaining the rest; and
2.
selling a portfolio of receivables while retaining the right to service the receivables profitably for a fee, resulting in an asset for the servicing right (see paragraph 47).
46. To illustrate application of paragraph 44, assume receivables with a carrying amount of 100 are sold for 90. The selling enterprise retains the right to service those receivables for a fee that is expected to exceed the cost of servicing, but the fair value of the servicing right cannot be measured reliably. In that case, a loss of 10 would be recognised and the servicing right would be recorded at zero.
47. This example illustrates how a transferor accounts for a sale or securitisation in which servicing is retained. An enterprise originates 1,000 of loans that yield 10 per cent interest for their estimated lives of 9 years. The enterprise sells the 1,000 principal plus the right to receive interest income of 8 per cent to another enterprise for 1,000. The transferor will continue to service the loans, and the contract stipulates that its compensation for performing the servicing is the right to receive half of the interest income not sold (that is, 100 of the 200 basis points). The remaining half of the interest income not sold is considered an interest-only strip receivable. At the date of the transfer, the fair value of the loans, including servicing, is 1,100, of which the fair value of the servicing asset is 40 and the fair value of the interest-only strip receivable is 60. Allocation of the 1,000 carrying amount of the loan is computed as follows:
Fair Value
Percentage of
Total Fair Value
Allocated Carrying Amount
Loans sold
1,000
91.0%
910
Servicing asset
40
3.6
36
Interest-only
strip receivable
60
5.4
54
Total
1,100
100.0%
1,000
The transferor will recognise a gain of 90 on the sale of the loan - the difference between the net proceeds of 1,000 and the allocated carrying amount of 910. Its balance sheet will also report a servicing asset of 36 and an interest-only strip receivable of 54. The servicing asset is an intangible asset subject to the provisions of FRS 38, Intangible Assets.
Asset Derecognition Coupled with a New Financial Asset or Liability
48. If an enterprise transfers control of an entire financial asset but, in doing so, creates a new financial asset or assumes a new financial liability, the enterprise should recognise the new financial asset or financial liability at fair value and should recognise a gain or loss on the transaction based on the difference between:
1.
the proceeds; and
2.
the carrying amount of the financial asset sold plus the fair value of any new financial liability assumed, minus the fair value of any new financial asset acquired, and plus or minus any adjustment that had previously been reported in equity to reflect the fair value of that asset.
49. Examples of paragraph 48 are:
1.
selling a portfolio of receivables while assuming an obligation to compensate the purchaser of the receivables if collections are below a specified level; and
2.
selling a portfolio of receivables while retaining the right to service the receivables for a fee, and the fee to be received is less than the costs of servicing, thereby resulting in a liability for the servicing obligation.
50. The following example illustrates application of paragraph 48. A transfers certain receivables to B for a single, fixed cash payment. A is not obligated to make future payments of interest on the cash it has received from B. However, A guarantees B against default loss on the receivables up to a specified amount. Actual losses in excess of the amount guaranteed will be borne by B. As a result of the transaction, A has lost control over the receivables and B has obtained control. B now has the contractual right to receive cash inherent in the receivables as well as a guarantee from A. Under paragraph 48:
1.
B recognises the receivables on its balance sheet, and A removes the receivables from its balance sheet because they were sold to B; and
2.
the guarantee is treated as a separate financial instrument, created as a result of the transfer, to be recognised as a financial liability by A and a financial asset by B. For practical purposes, B might include the guarantee asset with the receivables.
51. In the rare circumstance that the fair value of the new financial asset or new financial liability cannot be measured reliably, then:
1.
if a new financial asset is created but cannot be measured reliably, its initial carrying amount should be zero, and a gain or loss should be recognised equal to the difference between (i) the proceeds and (ii) the previous carrying amount of the derecognised financial asset plus or minus any prior adjustment that had been reported in equity to reflect the fair value of that asset; and
2.
if a new financial liability is assumed but cannot be measured reliably, its initial carrying amount should be such that no gain is recognised on the transaction and, if FRS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets, requires recognition of a provision, a loss should be recognised.
Paragraphs 92-99 provide guidance as to when fair value is reliably measurable.
52. To illustrate paragraph 51(b), the excess of the proceeds over the carrying amount is not recognised in net profit or loss. Instead it is recorded as a liability in the balance sheet.
53. If a guarantee is recognised as a liability under this Standard, it continues to be recognised as a liability of the guarantor, measured at its fair value (or at the greater of its original recorded amount and any provision required by FRS 37, if fair value cannot be reliably measured), until it expires. If the guarantee involves a large population of items, the guarantee should be measured by weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities.
Derecognition of a Financial Liability
54. An enterprise should remove a financial liability (or a part of a financial liability) from its balance sheet when, and only when, it is extinguished - that is, when the obligation specified in the contract is discharged, cancelled, or expires.
55. The condition in paragraph 54 is met when either:
1.
the debtor discharges the liability by paying the creditor, normally with cash, other financial assets, goods, or services; or
2.
the debtor is legally released from primary responsibility for the liability (or part thereof) either by process of law or by the creditor (the fact that the debtor may have given a guarantee does not necessarily mean that this condition is not met).
56. Payment to a third party including a trust (sometimes called 'in-substance defeasance') does not by itself relieve the debtor of its primary obligation to the creditor, in the absence of legal release.
57. While legal release, whether judicially or by the creditor, will result in derecognition of a liability, the enterprise may have to recognise a new liability if the derecognition criteria in paragraphs 35-54 are not met for the non-cash financial assets that were transferred. If those criteria are not met, the transferred assets are not removed from the transferor's balance sheet, and the transferor recognises a new liability relating to the transferred assets that may be equal to the derecognised liability.
58. An exchange between an existing borrower and lender of debt instruments with substantially different terms is an extinguishment of the old debt that should result in derecognition of that debt and recognition of a new debt instrument. Similarly, a substantial modification of the terms of an existing debt instrument (whether or not due to the financial difficulty of the debtor) should be accounted for as an extinguishment of the old debt.
59. For the purpose of paragraph 58, the terms are substantially different if the discounted present value of the cash flows under the new terms, including any fees paid net of any fees received, is at least 10 per cent different from the discounted present value of the remaining cash flows of the original debt instrument. If an exchange of debt instruments or modification of terms is accounted for as an extinguishment, any costs or fees incurred are recognised as part of the gain or loss on the extinguishment. If the exchange or modification is not accounted for as an extinguishment, any costs or fees incurred are an adjustment to the carrying amount of the liability and are amortised over the remaining term of the modified loan.
60. The difference between the carrying amount of a liability (or part of a liability) extinguished or transferred to another party, including related unamortised costs, and the amount paid for it should be included in net profit or loss for the period.
61. In some cases, a creditor releases a debtor from its present obligation to make payments, but the debtor assumes an obligation to pay if the party assuming primary responsibility defaults. In this circumstance the debtor:
1.
recognises a new financial liability based on the fair value of its obligation for the guarantee; and
2.
recognises a gain or loss based on the difference between (i) any proceeds and (ii) the carrying amount of the original financial liability (including any related unamortised costs) minus the fair value of the new financial liability.
Derecognition of Part of a Financial Liability or Coupled with a New Financial Asset or Liability
62. If an enterprise transfers a part of a financial liability to others while retaining a part, or if an enterprise transfers an entire financial liability and in so doing creates a new financial asset or assumes a new financial liability, the enterprise should account for the transaction in the manner set out in paragraphs 44-53.
Measurement
Initial Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities
63. When a financial asset or financial liability is recognised initially, an enterprise should measure it at its cost, which is the fair value of the consideration given (in the case of an asset) or received (in the case of a liability) for it. Transaction costs are included in the initial measurement of all financial assets and liabilities.
64. The fair value of the consideration given or received normally is determinable by reference to the transaction price or other market prices. If such market prices are not reliably determinable, the fair value of the consideration is estimated as the sum of all future cash payments or receipts, discounted, if the effect of doing so would be material, using the prevailing market rate(s) of interest for a similar instrument (similar as to currency, term, type of interest rate, and other factors) of an issuer with a similar credit rating (see FRS 18, Revenue, paragraph 10). As an exception to paragraph 63, paragraph 157 requires that certain hedging gains and losses be included as part of the initial measurement of the cost of the related hedged asset.
Subsequent Measurement of Financial Assets
65. For the purpose of measuring a financial asset subsequent to initial recognition, this Standard classifies financial assets into four categories:
1.
loans and receivables originated by the enterprise and not held for trading;
2.
held-to-maturity investments;
3.
available-for-sale financial assets; and
4.
financial assets held for trading.
66. After initial recognition, an enterprise should measure financial assets, including derivatives that are assets, at their fair values, without any deduction for transaction costs that it may incur on sale or other disposal, except for the following categories of financial assets, which should be measured under paragraph 70:
1.
loans and receivables originated by the enterprise and not held for trading;
2.
held-to-maturity investments; and
3.
any financial asset that does not have a quoted market price in an active market and whose fair value cannot be reliably measured (see paragraph 67).
Financial assets that are designated as hedged items are subject to measurement under the hedge accounting provisions in paragraphs 118-162 of this Standard.
67. There is a presumption that fair value can be reliably determined for most financial assets classified as available for sale or held for trading. However, that presumption can be overcome for an investment in an equity instrument (including an investment that is in substance an equity instrument - see paragraph 68) that does not have a quoted market price in an active market and for which other methods of reasonably estimating fair value are clearly inappropriate or unworkable. The presumption can also be overcome for a derivative that is linked to and that must be settled by delivery of such an unquoted equity instrument. See paragraphs 92-99 for guidance on estimating fair value.
68. An example of an investment that is in substance an equity instrument is special participation rights without a specified maturity whose return is linked to an enterprise's performance.
69. If a financial asset is required to be measured at fair value and its fair value is below zero, it is accounted for as a financial liability as set out in paragraph 90.
70. Those financial assets that are excluded from fair valuation under paragraph 66 and that have a fixed maturity should be measured at amortised cost using the effective interest rate method. Those that do not have a fixed maturity should be measured at cost. All financial assets are subject to review for impairment as set out in paragraphs 106-116.
71. Short-duration receivables with no stated interest rate are normally measured at original invoice amount unless the effect of imputing interest would be significant.
72. Loans and receivables originated by an enterprise and not held for trading are measured at amortised cost without regard to the enterprise's intent to hold them to maturity.
73. For floating rate financial instruments, periodic re-estimation of determinable cash flows to reflect movements in market rates of interest changes the effective yield on a monetary financial asset. Such changes in cash flows are recognised over the remaining term of the asset, or the next repricing date if the asset reprices at market. In the case of a floating rate financial asset recognised initially at an amount equal to the principal repayable on maturity, re-estimating the future interest payments normally has no significant effect on the carrying amount of the asset.
74. The following example illustrates how transaction costs relate to the initial and subsequent measurement of a financial asset held for trading. An asset is acquired for 100 plus a purchase commission of 2. Initially it is recorded at 102. At the next financial reporting date, the quoted market price of the asset remains at 100. If the asset were sold, a commission of 3 would be paid. In that case, the asset is measured at 100 (without regard to the possible commission on sale) and a loss of 2 is recognised in net profit or loss for the period.
75. An enterprise applies FRS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, to financial assets that are monetary items under FRS 21 and that are denominated in a foreign currency. Under FRS 21, any foreign exchange gains and losses on monetary assets are reported in net profit or loss. An exception is a monetary item that is designated as a hedging instrument in a cash flow hedge (see paragraphs 118-162). Any recognised change in the fair value of such a monetary item apart from foreign exchange gains and losses is accounted for under paragraph 100. With respect to financial assets that are not monetary items under FRS 21 (for example, equity instruments), any recognised change in fair value, including any component of that change that may relate to changes in foreign exchange rates, is accounted for under paragraph 100. Under the hedge accounting provisions of this Standard (paragraphs 118-162), if there is a hedging relationship between a non-derivative monetary asset and a non-derivative monetary liability, changes in the fair values of those financial instruments are reported in net profit or loss.
Held-to-Maturity Investments
76. An enterprise does not have the positive intent to hold to maturity an investment in a financial asset with a fixed maturity if any one of the following conditions is met:
1.
the enterprise has the intent to hold the financial asset for only an undefined period;
2.
the enterprise stands ready to sell the financial asset (other than if a situation arises that is non-recurring and could not have been reasonably anticipated by the enterprise) in response to changes in market interest rates or risks, liquidity needs, changes in the availability of and the yield on alternative investments, changes in financing sources and terms, or changes in foreign currency risk; or
3.
the issuer has a right to settle the financial asset at an amount significantly below its amortised cost.
77. A debt security with a variable interest rate can satisfy the criteria for a held-to-maturity investment. Most equity securities cannot be held-to-maturity investments either because they have an indefinite life (such as ordinary shares) or because the amounts the holder may receive can vary in a manner that is not predetermined (such as share options, warrants, and rights). With respect to held-to-maturity investments, fixed or determinable payments and fixed maturity means a contractual arrangement that defines the amounts and dates of payments to the holder, such as interest and principal payments on debt.
78. A financial asset that is callable by the issuer satisfies the criteria for a held-to-maturity investment if the holder intends and is able to hold it until it is called or until maturity and if the holder would recover substantially all of its carrying amount. The call option, if exercised, simply accelerates the asset's maturity. However, if the financial asset is callable in a manner such that the holder would not recover substantially all of its carrying amount, the financial asset is not classified as held-to-maturity. The enterprise considers any premium paid and capitalised transaction costs in determining whether the carrying amount would be substantially recovered.
79. A financial asset that is puttable (the holder has the right to require that the issuer repay or redeem the financial asset before maturity) is classified as a held-to-maturity investment only if the holder has the positive intent and ability to hold it until maturity and not to exercise the put feature.
80. An enterprise should not classify any financial assets as held-to-maturity if the enterprise has, during the current financial year or during the two preceding financial years, sold, transferred, or exercised a put option on more than an insignificant amount of held-to-maturity investments before maturity (more than insignificant in relation to the total held-to-maturity portfolio) other than by:
1.
sales close enough to maturity or exercised call date so that changes in the market rate of interest did not have a significant effect on the financial asset's fair value;
2.
sales after the enterprise has already collected substantially all of the financial asset's original principal through scheduled payments or prepayments; or
3. sales due to an isolated event that is beyond the enterprise's control and that is non-recurring and could not have been reasonably anticipated by the enterprise.
Paragraphs 87-89 address reclassifications between fair value and amortised cost.
81. Under this Standard, fair value is a more appropriate measure for most financial assets than amortised cost. The held-to-maturity classification is an exception, but only if the enterprise has the positive intent and ability to hold the investment to maturity. When an enterprise's actions have cast doubt on its intent and ability to hold such investments to maturity, paragraph 80 precludes the exception for a reasonable period of time.
82. A 'disaster scenario' that is extremely remote, such as a run on a bank or a similar situation affecting an insurance company, is not anticipated by an enterprise in deciding whether it has the positive intent and ability to hold an investment to maturity.
83. Sales before maturity could satisfy the condition in paragraph 80 - and therefore not raise a question about the enterprise's intent to hold other investments to maturity - if they are due to:
1.
a significant deterioration in the issuer's creditworthiness;
2.
a change in tax law that eliminates or significantly reduces the tax-exempt status of interest on the held-to-maturity investment (but not a change in tax law that revises the marginal tax rates applicable to interest income);
3.
a major business combination or major disposition (such as sale of a segment) that necessitates the sale or transfer of held-to-maturity investments to maintain the enterprise's existing interest rate risk position or credit risk policy (although the business combination itself is an event within the enterprise's control, the changes to its investment portfolio to maintain interest rate risk position or credit risk policy may be consequential rather than anticipated);
4.
a change in statutory or regulatory requirements significantly modifying either what constitutes a permissible investment or the maximum level of certain kinds of investments, thereby causing an enterprise to dispose of a held-to-maturity investment;
5.
a significant increase by the regulator in the industry's capital requirements that causes the enterprise to downsize by selling held-to-maturity investments; or
6.
a significant increase in the risk weights of held-to-maturity investments used for regulatory risk-based capital purposes.
84. An enterprise does not have a demonstrated ability to hold to maturity an investment in a financial asset with a fixed maturity if either one of the following conditions is met:
1.
it does not have the financial resources available to continue to finance the investment until maturity; or
2.
it is subject to an existing legal or other constraint that could frustrate its intention to hold the financial asset to maturity (however, an issuer's call option does not necessarily frustrate an enterprise's intent to hold a financial asset to maturity - see paragraph 78).
85. Circumstances other than those described in paragraphs 76-84 can indicate that an enterprise does not have a positive intent or ability to hold an investment to maturity.
86. An enterprise assesses its intent and ability to hold its held-to-maturity investments to maturity not only when those financial assets are initially acquired but also at each balance sheet date.
87. If, due to a change of intent or ability, it is no longer appropriate to carry a held-to-maturity investment at amortised cost, it should be remeasured at fair value, and the difference between its carrying amount and fair value should be accounted for in accordance with paragraph 100.
88. Similarly, if a reliable measure becomes available for a financial asset for which such a measure previously was not available, the asset should be remeasured at fair value, and the difference between its carrying amount and fair value should be accounted for in accordance with paragraph 100.
89. If, due to a change of intent or ability or in the rare circumstance that a reliable measure of fair value is no longer available or because the 'two preceding financial years' referred to in paragraph 80 have now passed, it becomes appropriate to carry a financial asset at amortised cost rather than at fair value, the fair value carrying amount of the financial asset on that date becomes its new amortised cost. Any previous gain or loss on that asset that has been recognised directly in equity in accordance with paragraph 100 should be accounted for as follows:
1.
in the case of a financial asset with a fixed maturity, a previous gain or loss on that asset that has been recognised directly in equity should be amortised over the remaining life of the held-to-maturity investment. Any difference between the new amortised cost and maturity amount should be amortised over the remaining life of the financial asset as an adjustment of yield, similar to amortisation of premium and discount; and
2.
in the case of a financial asset that does not have a fixed maturity, a previous gain or loss on that asset that has been recognised directly in equity should be left in equity until the financial asset has been sold or otherwise disposed of, at which time it should enter into the determination of net profit or loss.
Subsequent Measurement of Financial Liabilities
90. After initial recognition, an enterprise should measure all financial liabilities, other than liabilities held for trading and derivatives that are liabilities, at amortised cost. After initial recognition, an enterprise should measure liabilities held for trading and derivatives that are liabilities at fair value, except for a derivative liability that is linked to and that must be settled by delivery of an unquoted equity instrument whose fair value cannot be reliably measured, which should be measured at cost. Financial liabilities that are designated as hedged items are subject to measurement under the hedge accounting provisions in paragraphs 118-162 of this Standard.
91. An enterprise applies FRS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, to financial liabilities that are monetary items under FRS 21 and that are denominated in a foreign currency. Under FRS 21, any foreign exchange gains and losses on monetary liabilities are reported in net profit or loss. An exception is a monetary item that is designated as a hedging instrument in a cash flow hedge (see paragraphs 118-162). Any recognised change in the fair value of such a monetary item apart from foreign exchange gains and losses is accounted for under paragraph 100. With respect to financial liabilities that are not monetary items under FRS 21 (such as some mandatorily redeemable preferred stock issued by the enterprise), any recognised change in fair value, including any component of that change that may relate to changes in foreign exchange rates, is accounted for under paragraph 100. Under the hedge accounting provisions of this Standard (paragraphs 118-162), if there is a hedging relationship between a non-derivative monetary asset and a non-derivative monetary liability, changes in the fair values of those financial instruments will be reported in net profit or loss.
Fair Value Measurement Considerations
92. The fair value of a financial instrument is reliably measurable if (a) the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates is not significant for that instrument or (b) if the probabilities of the various estimates within the range can be reasonably assessed and used in estimating fair value. Often, an enterprise will be able to make an estimate of the fair value of a financial instrument that is sufficiently reliable to use in financial statements. Occasionally, the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates is so great and the probabilities of the various outcomes are so difficult to assess that the usefulness of a single estimate of fair value is negated.
93. Situations in which fair value is reliably measurable include (a) a financial instrument for which there is a published price quotation in an active public securities market for that instrument, (b) a debt instrument that has been rated by an independent rating agency and whose cash flows can be reasonably estimated, and (c) a financial instrument for which there is an appropriate valuation model and for which the data inputs to that model can be measured reliably because the data come from active markets.
94. The fair value of a financial asset or financial liability may be determined by one of several generally accepted methods. Valuation techniques should incorporate the assumptions that market participants would use in their estimates of fair values, including assumptions about prepayment rates, rates of estimated credit losses, and interest or discount rates. Paragraph 164(a) requires disclosure of the methods and significant assumptions applied in estimating fair values.
95. Underlying the definition of fair value is a presumption that an enterprise is a going concern without any intention or need to liquidate, curtail materially the scale of its operations, or undertake a transaction on adverse terms. Fair value is not, therefore, the amount that an enterprise would receive or pay in a forced transaction, involuntary liquidation, or distress sale. However, an enterprise takes its current circumstances into account in determining the fair values of its financial assets and financial liabilities. For example, the fair value of a financial asset that an enterprise has decided to sell for cash in the immediate future is determined by the amount that it expects to receive from such a sale. The amount of cash to be realised from an immediate sale will be affected by factors such as the current liquidity and depth of the market for the asset.
96. The existence of published price quotations in an active market is normally the best evidence of fair value. The appropriate quoted market price for an asset held or liability to be issued is usually the current bid price and, for an asset to be acquired or liability held, the current offer or asking price. When current bid and offer prices are unavailable, the price of the most recent transaction may provide evidence of the current fair value provided that there has not been a significant change in economic circumstances between the transaction date and the reporting date. When an enterprise has matching asset and liability positions, it may appropriately use mid-market prices as a basis for establishing fair values.
97. If the market for a financial instrument is not an active market, published price quotations may have to be adjusted to arrive at a reliable measure of fair value. If there is infrequent activity in a market, the market is not well established (for example, some 'over the counter' markets) or small volumes are traded relative to the number of trading units of a financial instrument to be valued, quoted market prices may not be indicative of the fair value of the instrument. In some cases where the volume traded is relatively small, a price quotation for a larger block may be available from the market maker in that instrument. In other circumstances, as well as when a quoted market price is not available, estimation techniques may be used to determine fair value with sufficient reliability to satisfy the requirements of this Standard. Techniques that are well established in financial markets include reference to the current market value of another instrument that is substantially the same, discounted cash flow analysis, and option pricing models. In applying discounted cash flow analysis, an enterprise uses the discount rate(s) equal to the prevailing rate of return for financial instruments having substantially the same terms and characteristics, including the creditworthiness of the debtor, the remaining term over which the contractual interest rate is fixed, the remaining term to repayment of the principal, and the currency in which payments are to be made.
98. If a market price does not exist for a financial instrument in its entirety but markets exist for its component parts, fair value is constructed on the basis of the relevant market prices. If a market does not exist for a financial instrument but a market exists for a similar financial instrument, fair value is constructed on the basis of the market price of the similar financial instrument.
99. There are many situations other than those enumerated in paragraphs 92-98 in which the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates is likely not to be significant. It is normally possible to estimate the fair value of a financial asset that an enterprise has acquired from an outside party. An enterprise is unlikely to purchase a financial instrument for which it does not expect to be able to obtain a reliable measure of fair value after acquisition. The FRS Framework states: 'In many cases, cost or value must be estimated; the use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of financial statements and does not undermine their reliability.'
Gains and Losses on Remeasurement to Fair Value
100. A recognised gain or loss arising from a change in the fair value of a financial asset or financial liability that is not part of a hedging relationship (see paragraphs 118-162) should be reported as follows:
1.
a gain or loss on a financial asset or liability held for trading should be included in net profit or loss for the period in which it arises (in this regard, a derivative should always be considered to be held for trading unless it is a designated hedging instrument - see paragraph 119);
2.
a gain or loss on an available-for-sale financial asset should be either:
1.
included in net profit or loss for the period in which it arises; or
2.
recognised directly in equity, through the statement of changes in equity (see FRS 1, Presentation of Financial Statements, paragraphs 86-88), until the financial asset is sold, collected, or otherwise disposed of, or until the financial asset is determined to be impaired (see paragraphs 114-116), at which time the cumulative gain or loss previously recognised in equity should be included in net profit or loss for the period.
101. An enterprise should choose either paragraph 100(b)(i) or paragraph 100(b)(ii) as its accounting policy and should apply that policy to all of its available-for-sale financial assets (except for hedges - see paragraph 118).
102. FRS 8, Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies, provides that a voluntary change in accounting policy should be made only if the change will result in a more appropriate presentation of events or transactions in the financial statements of the enterprise. This is highly unlikely to be the case for a change from paragraph 100(b)(i) to paragraph 100(b)(ii).
103. If an enterprise recognises purchases of financial assets using settlement date accounting (see paragraph 30), any change in the fair value of the asset to be received during the period between the trade date and the settlement date is not recognised for assets carried at cost or amortised cost (other than impairment losses). For assets remeasured to fair value, however, the change in fair value should be recognised in net profit or loss or in equity, as appropriate under paragraph 100.
104. Because the designation of a financial asset as held for trading is based on the objective for initially acquiring it, an enterprise should not reclassify its financial assets that are being remeasured to fair value out of the trading category while they are held. An enterprise should reclassify a financial asset into the trading category only if there is evidence of a recent actual pattern of short-term profit taking that justifies such reclassification (see paragraph 21).
Gains and Losses on Financial Assets and Liabilities Not Remeasured to Fair Value
105. For those financial assets and financial liabilities carried at amortised cost (paragraphs 70 and 90), a gain or loss is recognised in net profit or loss when the financial asset or liability is derecognised or impaired, as well as through the amortisation process. However, if there is a hedging relationship between those financial assets or liabilities (the items being hedged) and a hedging instrument as described in paragraphs 118-149, accounting for the gain or loss should follow paragraphs 150-161.
Impairment and Uncollectability of Financial Assets
106. A financial asset is impaired if its carrying amount is greater than its estimated recoverable amount. An enterprise should assess at each balance sheet date whether there is any objective evidence that a financial asset or group of assets may be impaired. If any such evidence exists, the enterprise should estimate the recoverable amount of that asset or group of assets and recognise any impairment loss in accordance with paragraph 108 (for financial assets carried at amortised cost) or paragraph 114 (for financial assets remeasured to fair value).
107. Objective evidence that a financial asset or group of assets is impaired or uncollectable includes information that comes to the attention of the holder of the asset about:
1.
significant financial difficulty of the issuer;
2.
an actual breach of contract, such as a default or delinquency in interest or principal payments;
3.
granting by the lender to the borrower, for economic or legal reasons relating to the borrower's financial difficulty, of a concession that the lender would not otherwise consider;
4.
a high probability of bankruptcy or other financial reorganisation of the issuer;
5.
recognition of an impairment loss on that asset in a prior financial reporting period;
6.
the disappearance of an active market for that financial asset due to financial difficulties; or
7.
a historical pattern of collections of accounts receivable that indicates that the entire face amount of a portfolio of accounts receivable will not be collected.
The disappearance of an active market because an enterprise's securities are no longer publicly traded is not evidence of impairment. A downgrade of an enterprise's credit rating is not, of itself, evidence of impairment, though it may be evidence of impairment when considered with other available information.
Financial Assets Carried at Amortised Cost
108. If it is probable that an enterprise will not be able to collect all amounts due (principal and interest) according to the contractual terms of loans, receivables, or held-to-maturity investments carried at amortised cost, an impairment or bad debt loss has occurred. The amount of the loss is the difference between the asset's carrying amount and the present value of expected future cash flows discounted at the financial instrument's original effective interest rate (recoverable amount). Cash flows relating to short-term receivables generally are not discounted (see paragraph 71). The carrying amount of the asset should be reduced to its estimated recoverable amount either directly or through use of an allowance account. The amount of the loss should be included in net profit or loss for the period.
109. Impairment and uncollectability are measured and recognised individually for financial assets that are individually significant. Impairment and uncollectability may be measured and recognised on a portfolio basis for a group of similar financial assets that are not individually identified as impaired.
110. Impairment of a financial asset carried at amortised cost is measured using the financial instrument's original effective interest rate because discounting at the current market rate of interest would, in effect, impose fair-value measurement on financial assets that this Standard would otherwise measure at amortised cost. If a loan, receivable, or held-to-maturity investment has a variable interest rate, the discount rate for measuring recoverable amount pursuant to paragraph 108 is the current effective interest rate(s) determined under the contract. As a surrogate for such a fair value calculation, a creditor may measure impairment based on an instrument's fair value using an observable market price. If an asset is collateralised and foreclosure is probable, then the holder measures impairment based on the fair value of the collateral.
111. If, in a subsequent period, the amount of the impairment or bad debt loss decreases and the decrease can be objectively related to an event occurring after the write-down (such as an improvement in the debtor's credit rating), the write-down of the financial asset should be reversed either directly or by adjusting an allowance account. The reversal should not result in a carrying amount of the financial asset that exceeds what amortised cost would have been, had the impairment not been recognised, at the date the write-down of the financial asset is reversed. The amount of the reversal should be included in net profit or loss for the period.
112. The carrying amount of any financial asset that is not carried at fair value because its fair value cannot be reliably measured (paragraph 66(c)) should be reviewed for an indication of impairment at each balance sheet date based on an analysis of expected net cash inflows. If there is an indication of impairment, the amount of the impairment loss of such a financial asset is the difference between its carrying amount and the present value of expected future cash flows discounted at the current market rate of interest for a similar financial asset (recoverable amount).
Interest Income After Impairment Recognition
113. Once a financial asset has been written down to its estimated recoverable amount, interest income is thereafter recognised based on the rate of interest that was used to discount the future cash flows for the purpose of measuring the recoverable amount. Additionally, after initially recognising an impairment loss, the enterprise will review this asset for further impairment at subsequent financial reporting dates (see paragraph 107(e)). FRS 18 paragraph 29 provides guidance for recognising interest income on unimpaired financial assets.
Financial Assets Remeasured to Fair Value
114. If a loss on a financial asset carried at fair value (recoverable amount is below original acquisition cost) has been recognised directly in equity in accordance with paragraph 100(b)(ii) and there is objective evidence (see paragraph 107) that the asset is impaired, the cumulative net loss that had been recognised directly in equity should be removed from equity and recognised in net profit or loss for the period even though the financial asset has not been derecognised.
115. The amount of the loss that should be removed from equity and reported in net profit or loss is the difference between its acquisition cost (net of any principal repayment and amortisation) and current fair value (for equity instruments) or recoverable amount (for debt instruments), less any impairment loss on that asset previously recognised in net profit or loss. The recoverable amount of a debt instrument remeasured to fair value is the present value of expected future cash flows discounted at the current market rate of interest for a similar financial asset.
116. If, in a subsequent period, the fair value or recoverable amount of the financial asset carried at fair value increases and the increase can be objectively related to an event occurring after the loss was recognised in net profit or loss, the loss should be reversed, with the amount of the reversal included in net profit or loss for the period.
Fair Value Accounting in Certain Financial Services Industries
117. In some countries, either based on national law or accepted industry practice, enterprises in certain financial services industries measure substantially all financial assets at fair value. Examples of such industries include, in certain countries, mutual funds, unit trusts, securities brokers and dealers, and insurance companies. Under this Standard, such an enterprise will be able to continue to measure its financial assets at fair value if its financial assets are classified under this Standard as either available for sale or held for trading.
Hedging
118. If there is a hedging relationship between a hedging instrument and a related item being hedged as described in paragraphs 119-149, accounting for the gain or loss should follow paragraphs 150-161.
Hedging Instruments
119. This Standard does not restrict the circumstances in which a derivative may be designated as a hedging instrument, for hedge accounting purposes, if the conditions in paragraph 139 are met, except for certain written options (see paragraph 121). However, a non-derivative financial asset or liability may be designated as a hedging instrument, for hedge accounting purposes, only for a hedge of a foreign currency risk. The reason for this limitation is the different bases for measuring derivatives and non-derivatives. Under this Standard derivatives are always regarded as held for trading or hedging and, therefore, are (unless they are linked to and must be settled by delivery of an unquoted equity instrument whose fair value is not reliably measurable) remeasured to fair value, with changes in fair value included in net profit or loss, or in equity if the instrument is a cash flow hedge. Non-derivatives, on the other hand, are sometimes measured at fair value with changes in fair value included in net profit or loss, sometimes measured at fair value with changes in fair value reported in equity, and sometimes measured at amortised cost. To allow non-derivatives to be designated as hedging instruments in more than limited circumstances creates measurement inconsistencies.
120. An enterprise's own equity securities are not financial assets or financial liabilities of the enterprise and, therefore, are not hedging instruments.
121. Hedging involves a proportionate income offset between changes in fair value of, or cash flows attributable to, the hedging instrument and the hedged item. The potential loss on an option that an enterprise writes could be significantly greater than the potential gain in value of a related hedged item. That is, a written option is not effective in reducing the exposure on net profit or loss. Therefore, a written option is not a hedging instrument unless it is designated as an offset to a purchased option, including one that is embedded in another financial instrument, for example, a written option used to hedge callable debt. In contrast, a purchased option has potential gains equal to or greater than losses and, therefore, has the potential to reduce profit or loss exposure from changes in fair values or cash flows. Accordingly, it can qualify as a hedging instrument.
122. Held-to-maturity investments carried at amortised cost may be effective hedging instruments with respect to risks from changes in foreign currency exchange rates.
123. A financial asset or financial liability whose fair value cannot be reliably measured cannot be a hedging instrument except in the case of a nonderivative instrument (a) that is denominated in a foreign currency, (b) that is designated as a hedge of foreign currency risk, and (c) whose foreign currency component is reliably measurable.
Hedged Items
124. A hedged item can be a recognised asset or liability, an unrecognised firm commitment, or an uncommitted but highly probable anticipated future transaction ('forecasted transaction'). The hedged item can be (a) a single asset, liability, firm commitment, or forecasted transaction or (b) a group of assets, liabilities, firm commitments, or forecasted transactions with similar risk characteristics. Unlike originated loans and receivables, a held-to-maturity investment cannot be a hedged item with respect to interest-rate risk because designation of an investment as held-to-maturity involves not accounting for associated changes in interest rates. However, a held-to-maturity investment can be a hedged item with respect to risks from changes in foreign currency exchange rates and credit risk.
125. If the hedged item is a financial asset or liability, it may be a hedged item with respect to the risks associated with only a portion of its cash flows or fair value, if effectiveness can be measured.
126. If the hedged item is a non-financial asset or liability, it should be designated as a hedged item either (a) for foreign currency risks or (b) in its entirety for all risks, because of the difficulty of isolating and measuring the appropriate portion of the cash flows or fair value changes attributable to specific risks other than foreign currency risks.
127. Because changes in the price of an ingredient or component of a non-financial asset or liability generally do not have a predictable, separately measurable effect on the price of the item that is comparable to the effect of, say, a change in market interest rates or the price of a bond, a non-financial asset or liability is a hedged item only in its entirety.
128. A single hedging instrument may be designated as a hedge of more than one type of risk provided that: (a) the risks hedged can be clearly identified, (b) the effectiveness of the hedge can be demonstrated, and (c) it is possible to ensure that there is a specific designation of the hedging instrument and the different risk positions.
129. If similar assets or similar liabilities are aggregated and hedged as a group, the individual assets or individual liabilities in the group will share the risk exposure for which they are designated as being hedged. Further, the change in fair value attributable to the hedged risk for each individual item in the group will be expected to be approximately proportional to the overall change in fair value attributable to the hedged risk of the group.
130. Because hedge effectiveness must be assessed by comparing the change in value or cash flow of a hedging instrument (or group of similar hedging instruments) and a hedged item (or group of similar hedged items), comparing a hedging instrument to an overall net position rather than to a specific hedged item (for example, the net of all fixed rate assets and fixed rate liabilities with similar maturities), does not qualify for hedge accounting. However, approximately the same effect on net profit or loss of hedge accounting for this kind of hedging relationship can be achieved by designating part of the underlying items as the hedged position. For example, if a bank has 100 of assets and 90 of liabilities with risks and terms of a similar nature and wishes to hedge the net 10 exposure, it can designate 10 of those assets as the hedged item. This designation could be used if such assets and liabilities are fixed rate instruments, in which case it is a fair value hedge, or if they are both variable rate instruments, in which case it is a cash flow hedge. Similarly, if an enterprise has a firm commitment to make a purchase in a foreign currency of 100 and a firm commitment to make a sale in the foreign currency of 90, it can hedge the net amount of 10 by acquiring a derivative and designating it as a hedging instrument associated with 10 of the firm purchase commitment of 100.
131. For hedge accounting purposes, only derivatives that involve a party external to the enterprise can be designated as hedging instruments. Although individual companies within a consolidated group or divisions within a company may enter into hedging transactions with other companies within the group or divisions within the company, any gains and losses on such transactions are eliminated on consolidation. Therefore, such intra-group or intra-company hedging transactions do not qualify for hedge accounting treatment in consolidation.
132. A firm commitment to acquire a business in a business combination cannot be a hedged item except with respect to foreign exchange risk because the other risks being hedged cannot be specifically identified and measured. It is a hedge of a general business risk.
Hedge Accounting
133. Hedge accounting recognises symmetrically the offsetting effects on net profit or loss of changes in the fair values of the hedging instrument and the related item being hedged.
134. Hedging relationships are of three types:
1.
fair value hedge: a hedge of the exposure to changes in the fair value of a recognised asset or liability, or an identified portion of such an asset or liability, that is attributable to a particular risk and that will affect reported net income;
2.
cash flow hedge: a hedge of the exposure to variability in cash flows that (i) is attributable to a particular risk associated with a recognised asset or liability (such as all or some future interest payments on variable rate debt) or a forecasted transaction (such as an anticipated purchase or sale) and that (ii) will affect reported net profit or loss. A hedge of an unrecognised firm commitment to buy or sell an asset at a fixed price in the enterprise's reporting currency is accounted for as a cash flow hedge even though it has a fair value exposure; and
3.
hedge of a net investment in a foreign entity as defined in FRS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates.
135. An example of a fair value hedge is a hedge of exposure to changes in the fair value of fixed rate debt as a result of changes in interest rates. Such a hedge could be entered into either by the issuer or by the holder.
136. Examples of cash flow hedges are:
1.
a hedge of the future foreign currency risk in an unrecognised contractual commitment by an airline to purchase an aircraft for a fixed amount of a foreign currency;
2.
a hedge of the change in fuel price relating to an unrecognised contractual commitment by an electric utility to purchase fuel at a fixed price, with payment in its domestic currency; and
3.
use of a swap to, in effect, change floating rate debt to fixed rate debt (this is a hedge of a future transaction; the future cash flows being hedged are the future interest payments).
137. A hedge of a firm commitment in an enterprise's own reporting currency is not a hedge of a cash flow exposure but rather of an exposure to a change in fair value. Nonetheless, such a hedge is accounted for as a cash flow hedge under this Standard, rather than as a fair value hedge, to avoid recognising as an asset or a liability a commitment that otherwise would not be recognised as an asset or liability under current accounting practice.
138. As defined in FRS 21, a foreign entity is a foreign operation, the activities of which are not an integral part of the reporting enterprise. Under FRS 21, all foreign exchange differences that result from translating the financial statements of the foreign entity into the parent's reporting currency are classified as equity until disposal of the net investment.
139. Under this Standard, a hedging relationship qualifies for special hedge accounting as set out in paragraphs 150-161 if, and only if, all of the following conditions are met:
1.
at the inception of the hedge there is formal documentation of the hedging relationship and the enterprise's risk management objective and strategy for undertaking the hedge. That documentation should include identification of the hedging instrument, the related hedged item or transaction, the nature of the risk being hedged, and how the enterprise will assess the hedging instrument's effectiveness in offsetting the exposure to changes in the hedged item's fair value or the hedged transaction's cash flows that is attributable to the hedged risk;
2.
the hedge is expected to be highly effective (see paragraph 143) in achieving offsetting changes in fair value or cash flows attributable to the hedged risk, consistent with the originally documented risk management strategy for that particular hedging relationship;
3.
for cash flow hedges, a forecasted transaction that is the subject of the hedge must be highly probable and must present an exposure to variations in cash flows that could ultimately affect reported net profit or loss;
4.
the effectiveness of the hedge can be reliably measured, that is, the fair value or cash flows of the hedged item and the fair value of the hedging instrument can be reliably measured (see paragraph 92 for guidance on fair value); and
5.
the hedge was assessed on an ongoing basis and determined actually to have been highly effective throughout the financial reporting period.
140. In the case of interest rate risk, hedge effectiveness may be assessed by preparing a maturity schedule that shows a reduction of all or part of the rate exposure, for each strip of maturity schedule, resulting from the aggregation of elements, the net position of which is hedged, providing such net exposure can be associated with an asset or liability giving rise to such net exposure and correlation can be assessed against that asset or liability.
141. There is normally a single fair value measure for a hedging instrument in its entirety, and the factors that cause changes in fair value are co-dependent. Thus a hedging relationship is designated by an enterprise for a hedging instrument in its entirety. The only exceptions permitted are (a) splitting the intrinsic value and the time value of an option and designating only the change in the intrinsic value of an option as the hedging instrument, while the remaining component of the option (its time value) is excluded and (b) splitting the interest element and the spot price on a forward. Those exceptions recognise that the intrinsic value of the option and the premium on the forward generally can be measured separately. A dynamic hedging strategy that assesses both the intrinsic and the time value of an option can qualify for hedge accounting.
142. A proportion of the entire hedging instrument, such as 50 per cent of the notional amount, may be designated in a hedging relationship. However, a hedging relationship may not be designated for only a portion of the time period in which a hedging instrument is outstanding.
Assessing Hedge Effectiveness
143. A hedge is normally regarded as highly effective if, at inception and throughout the life of the hedge, the enterprise can expect changes in the fair value or cash flows of the hedged item to be almost fully offset by the changes in the fair value or cash flows of the hedging instrument, and actual results are within a range of 80 per cent to 125 per cent. For example, if the loss on the hedging instrument is 120 and the gain on the cash instrument is 100, offset can be measured by 120/100, which is 120 per cent, or by 100/120, which is 83 per cent. The enterprise will conclude that the hedge is highly effective.
144. The method an enterprise adopts for assessing hedge effectiveness will depend on its risk management strategy. In some cases, an enterprise will adopt different methods for different types of hedges. If the principal terms of the hedging instrument and of the entire hedged asset or liability or hedged forecasted transaction are the same, the changes in fair value and cash flows attributable to the risk being hedged offset fully, both when the hedge is entered into and thereafter until completion. For instance, an interest rate swap is likely to be an effective hedge if the notional and principal amounts, term, repricing dates, dates of interest and principal receipts and payments, and basis for measuring interest rates are the same for the hedging instrument and the hedged item.
145. On the other hand, sometimes the hedging instrument will offset the hedged risk only partially. For instance, a hedge would not be fully effective if the hedging instrument and hedged item are denominated in different currencies and the two do not move in tandem. Also, a hedge of interest rate risk using a derivative would not be fully effective if part of the change in the fair value of the derivative is due to the counterparty's credit risk.
146. To qualify for special hedge accounting, the hedge must relate to a specific identified and designated risk, and not merely to overall enterprise business risks, and must ultimately affect the enterprise's net profit or loss. A hedge of the risk of obsolescence of a physical asset or the risk of expropriation of property by a government would not be eligible for hedge accounting; effectiveness cannot be measured since those risks are not measurable reliably.
147. An equity method investment cannot be a hedged item in a fair value hedge because the equity method recognises the investor's share of the associate's accrued net profit or loss, rather than fair value changes, in net profit or loss. If it were a hedged item, it would be adjusted for both fair value changes and profit and loss accruals - which would result in double counting because the fair value changes include the profit and loss accruals. For a similar reason, an investment in a consolidated subsidiary cannot be a hedged item in a fair value hedge because consolidation recognises the parent's share of the subsidiary's accrued net profit or loss, rather than fair value changes, in net profit or loss. A hedge of a net investment in a foreign subsidiary is different. There is no double counting because it is a hedge of the foreign currency exposure, not a fair value hedge of the change in the value of the investment.
148. This Standard does not specify a single method for assessing hedge effectiveness. An enterprise's documentation of its hedging strategy will include its procedures for assessing effectiveness. Those procedures will state whether the assessment will include all of the gain or loss on a hedging instrument or whether the instrument's time value will be excluded. Effectiveness is assessed, at a minimum, at the time an enterprise prepares its annual or interim financial report. If the critical terms of the hedging instrument and the entire hedged asset or liability (as opposed to selected cash flows) or hedged forecasted transaction are the same, an enterprise could conclude that changes in fair value or cash flows attributable to the risk being hedged are expected to completely offset at inception and on an ongoing basis. For example, an entity may assume that a hedge of a forecasted purchase of a commodity with a forward contract will be highly effective and that there will be no ineffectiveness to be recognised in net profit or loss if:
1.
the forward contract is for purchase of the same quantity of the same commodity at the same time and location as the hedged forecasted purchase;
2.
the fair value of the forward contract at inception is zero; and
3.
either the change in the discount or premium on the forward contract is excluded from the assessment of effectiveness and included directly in net profit or loss or the change in expected cash flows on the forecasted transaction is based on the forward price for the commodity.
149. In assessing the effectiveness of a hedge, an enterprise will generally need to consider the time value of money. The fixed rate on a hedged item need not exactly match the fixed rate on a swap designated as a fair value hedge. Nor does the variable rate on an interest-bearing asset or liability need to be the same as the variable rate on a swap designated as a cash flow hedge. A swap's fair value comes from its net settlements. The fixed and variable rates on a swap can be changed without affecting the net settlement if both are changed by the same amount.
Fair Value Hedges
150. If a fair value hedge meets the conditions in paragraph 139 during the financial reporting period, it should be accounted for as follows:
1.
the gain or loss from remeasuring the hedging instrument at fair value should be recognised immediately in net profit or loss; and
2.
the gain or loss on the hedged item attributable to the hedged risk should adjust the carrying amount of the hedged item and be recognised immediately in net profit or loss. This applies even if a hedged item is otherwise measured at fair value with changes in fair value recognised directly in equity under paragraph 100(b). It also applies if the hedged item is otherwise measured at cost.
151. The following illustrates how paragraph 150 applies to a hedge of exposure to changes in the fair value of an investment in fixed rate debt as a result of changes in interest rates. This example is presented from the perspective of the holder. In Year 1 an investor purchases for 100 a debt security that is classified as available for sale. At the end of Year 1, current fair value is 110. Therefore, the 10 increase is reported in equity (assuming the investor has elected this method), and the carrying amount is increased to 110 in the balance sheet. To protect the 110 value, the holder enters into a hedge by acquiring a derivative. By the end of Year 2, the derivative has a gain of 5, and the debt security has a corresponding decline in fair value.
Investor's Books Year 1: Debit Credit
Investment in debt security 100
Cash
100
To reflect the purchase of the security.
Investment in debt security 10
Increase in fair value (included in equity)
10
To reflect the increase in fair value of the security
Investor's Books Year 2: Debit Credit
Derivative asset 5
Gain (included in net profit or loss)
5
To reflect the increase in fair value of the derivative.
Loss (included in net profit or loss) 5
Investment in debt security
5
To reflect the decrease in fair value of the debt security.
The carrying amount of the debt security is 105 at the end of Year 2, and the carrying amount of the derivative is 5. The gain of 10 is reported in equity until the debt security is sold, and it is subject to amortisation in accordance with paragraph 154.
152. If only certain risks attributable to a hedged item have been hedged, recognised changes in the fair value of the hedged item unrelated to the hedge are reported in one of the two ways set out in paragraph 100.
153. An enterprise should discontinue prospectively the hedge accounting specified in paragraph 150 if any one of the following occurs:
1.
the hedging instrument expires or is sold, terminated, or exercised (for this purpose, the replacement or a rollover of a hedging instrument into another hedging instrument is not considered an expiration or termination if such replacement or rollover is part of the enterprise's documented hedging strategy); or
2.
the hedge no longer meets the criteria for qualification for hedge accounting in paragraph 139.
154. An adjustment to the carrying amount of a hedged interest-bearing financial instrument should be amortised to net profit or loss. Amortisation should begin no later than when the hedged item ceases to be adjusted for changes in its fair value attributable to the risk being hedged. The adjustment should be fully amortised by maturity.
Cash Flow Hedges
155. If a cash flow hedge meets the conditions in paragraph 139 during the financial reporting period, it should be accounted for as follows:
1.
the portion of the gain or loss on the hedging instrument that is determined to be an effective hedge (see paragraph 139) should be recognised directly in equity through the statement of changes in equity (see FRS 1, paragraphs 86-88); and
2.
the ineffective portion should be reported:
1.
immediately in net profit or loss if the hedging instrument is a derivative; or
2.
in accordance with paragraph 100 in the limited circumstances in which the hedging instrument is not a derivative.
156. More specifically, a cash flow hedge is accounted for as follows:
1.
the separate component of equity associated with the hedged item is adjusted to the lesser of the following (in absolute amounts):
1.
the cumulative gain or loss on the hedging instrument necessary to offset the cumulative change in expected future cash flows on the hedged item from inception of the hedge excluding the ineffective component discussed in paragraph 155(b); and
2.
the fair value of the cumulative change in expected future cash flows on the hedged item from inception of the hedge;
2.
any remaining gain or loss on the hedging instrument (which is not an effective hedge) is included in net profit or loss or directly in equity as appropriate under paragraphs 100 and 155; and
3.
if an enterprise's documented risk management strategy for a particular hedging relationship excludes a specific component of the gain or loss or related cash flows on the hedging instrument from the assessment of hedge effectiveness (see paragraph 139(a)), that excluded component of gain or loss is recognised in accordance with paragraph 100.
157. If the hedged firm commitment or forecasted transaction results in the recognition of an asset or a liability, then at the time the asset or liability is recognised the associated gains or losses that were recognised directly in equity in accordance with paragraph 155 should be removed from equity and should enter into the initial measurement of the acquisition cost or other carrying amount of the asset or liability.
158. The gain or loss on the hedging instrument that was included in the initial measurement of the acquisition cost or other carrying amount of the asset or liability is subsequently included in net profit or loss when the asset or liability affects net profit or loss (such as in the periods that depreciation expense, interest income or expense, or cost of sales is recognised). The provisions of other Financial Reporting Standards with respect to impairment of assets (see FRS 36, Impairment of Assets) and net realisable values of inventories (see FRS 2, Inventories) apply to assets arising from hedges of forecasted transactions.
159. For all cash flow hedges other than those covered by paragraph 157, amounts that had been recognised directly in equity should be included in net profit or loss in the same period or periods during which the hedged firm commitment or forecasted transaction affects net profit or loss (for example, when a forecasted sale actually occurs).
160. An enterprise should discontinue prospectively the hedge accounting specified in paragraphs 155-159 if any one of the following occurs:
1.
the hedging instrument expires or is sold, terminated, or exercised (for this purpose, the replacement or a rollover of a hedging instrument into another hedging instrument is not considered an expiration or termination if such replacement or rollover is part of the enterprise's documented hedging strategy). In this case, the cumulative gain or loss on the hedging instrument that initially had been reported directly in equity when the hedge was effective (see paragraph 155(a)) should remain separately in equity until the forecasted transaction occurs. When the transaction occurs, paragraphs 157 and 159 apply;
2.
the hedge no longer meets the criteria for qualification for hedge accounting in paragraph 139. In this case, the cumulative gain or loss on the hedging instrument that initially had been reported directly in equity when the hedge was effective (see paragraph 155(a)) should remain separately in equity until the committed or forecasted transaction occurs. When the transaction occurs, paragraphs 158 and 159 apply; or
3.
the committed or forecasted transaction is no longer expected to occur, in which case any related net cumulative gain or loss that has been reported directly in equity should be reported in net profit or loss for the period.
Hedges of a Net Investment in a Foreign Entity
161. Hedges of a net investment in a foreign entity (see FRS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates) should be accounted for similarly to cash flow hedges:
1.
the portion of the gain or loss on the hedging instrument that is determined to be an effective hedge (see paragraph 139) should be recognised directly in equity through the statement of changes in equity (see FRS 1, paragraphs 86-88); and
2.
the ineffective portion should be reported:
1.
immediately in net profit or loss if the hedging instrument is a derivative; or
2.
in accordance with paragraph 18 of FRS 21, in the limited circumstances in which the hedging instrument is not a derivative.
The gain or loss on the hedging instrument relating to the effective portion of the hedge should be classified in the same manner as the foreign currency translation gain or loss.
If a Hedge Does Not Qualify for Special Hedge Accounting
162. If a hedge does not qualify for special hedge accounting because it fails to meet the criteria in paragraph 139, gains and losses arising from changes in the fair value of a hedged item that is measured at fair value subsequent to initial recognition are reported in one of the two ways set out in paragraph 100. Fair value adjustments of a hedging instrument that is a derivative would be reported in net profit or loss.
Disclosure
163. Financial statements should include all of the disclosures required by FRS 32, except that the requirements in FRS 32 for supplementary disclosure of fair values (paragraphs 77 and 88) are not applicable to those financial assets and financial liabilities carried at fair value.
164. The following should be included in the disclosures of the enterprise's accounting policies as part of the disclosure required by FRS 32 paragraph 47(b):
1.
the methods and significant assumptions applied in estimating fair values of financial assets and financial liabilities that are carried at fair value, separately for significant classes of financial assets (paragraph 46 of FRS 32 provides guidance for determining classes of financial assets);
2.
whether gains and losses arising from changes in the fair value of those available-for-sale financial assets that are measured at fair value subsequent to initial recognition are included in net profit or loss for the period or are recognised directly in equity until the financial asset is disposed of; and
3.
for each category of financial assets defined in paragraph 10, whether 'regular way' purchases and sales of financial assets are accounted for at trade date or settlement date (see paragraph 30).
165. In applying paragraph 164(a), an enterprise will disclose prepayment rates, rates of estimated credit losses, and interest or discount rates.
166. Financial statements should include all of the following additional disclosures relating to hedging:
1.
describe the enterprise's financial risk management objectives and policies, including its policy for hedging each major type of forecasted transaction (see paragraph 139(a));
For example, in the case of hedges of risks relating to future sales, that description indicates the nature of the risks being hedged, approximately how many months or years of expected future sales have been hedged, and the approximate percentage of sales in those future months or years;
2.
disclose the following separately for designated fair value hedges, cash flow hedges, and hedges of a net investment in a foreign entity:
1.
a description of the hedge;
2.
a description of the financial instruments designated as hedging instruments for the hedge and their fair values at the balance sheet date;
3.
the nature of the risks being hedged; and
4.
for hedges of forecasted transactions, the periods in which the forecasted transactions are expected to occur, when they are expected to enter into the determination of net profit or loss, and a description of any forecasted transaction for which hedge accounting had previously been used but that is no longer expected to occur; and
3.
if a gain or loss on derivative and non-derivative financial assets and liabilities designated as hedging instruments in cash flow hedges has been recognised directly in equity, through the statement of changes in equity, disclose:
1.
the amount that was so recognised in equity during the current period;
2.
the amount that was removed from equity and reported in net profit or loss for the period; and
3.
the amount that was removed from equity and added to the initial measurement of the acquisition cost or other carrying amount of the asset or liability in a hedged forecasted transaction during the current period (see paragraph 157).
167. Financial statements should include all of the following additional disclosures relating to financial instruments:
1.
if a gain or loss from remeasuring available-for-sale financial assets to fair value (other than assets relating to hedges) has been recognised directly in equity, through the statement of changes in equity, disclose:
1.
the amount that was so recognised in equity during the current period; and
2.
the amount that was removed from equity and reported in net profit or loss for the period;
2.
if the presumption that fair value can be reliably measured for all financial assets that are available for sale or held for trading has been overcome (see paragraph 67) and the enterprise is, therefore, measuring any such financial assets at amortised cost, disclose that fact together with a description of the financial assets, their carrying amount, an explanation of why fair value cannot be reliably measured, and, if possible, the range of estimates within which fair value is highly likely to lie. Further, if financial assets whose fair value previously could not be measured reliably are sold, that fact, the carrying amount of such financial assets at the time of sale, and the amount of gain or loss recognised should be disclosed;
3.
disclose significant items of income, expense, and gains and losses resulting from financial assets and financial liabilities, whether included in net profit or loss or as a separate component of equity. For this purpose:
1.
total interest income and total interest expense (both on a historical cost basis) should be disclosed separately;
2.
with respect to available-for-sale financial assets that are adjusted to fair value after initial acquisition, total gains and losses from derecognition of such financial assets included in net profit or loss for the period should be reported separately from total gains and losses from fair value adjustments of recognised assets and liabilities included in net profit or loss for the period (a similar split of 'realised' versus 'unrealised' gains and losses with respect to financial assets and liabilities held for trading is not required);
3.
the enterprise should disclose the amount of interest income that has been accrued on impaired loans pursuant to paragraph 113 and that has not yet been received in cash;
4.
if the enterprise has entered into a securitisation or repurchase agreement, disclose, separately for such transactions occurring in the current financial reporting period and for remaining retained interests from transactions occurring in prior financial reporting periods:
1.
the nature and extent of such transactions, including a description of any collateral and quantitative information about the key assumptions used in calculating the fair values of new and retained interests;
2.
whether the financial assets have been derecognised;
5.
if the enterprise has reclassified a financial asset as one required to be reported at amortised cost rather than at fair value (see paragraph 89), disclose the reason for that reclassification;
6.
disclose the nature and amount of any impairment loss or reversal of an impairment loss recognised for a financial asset, separately for each significant class of financial asset (paragraph 46 of FRS 32 provides guidance for determining classes of financial assets);
7.
a borrower should disclose the carrying amount of financial assets pledged as collateral for liabilities and (consistent with FRS 32.47(a) and FRS 32.49(g)) any significant terms and conditions relating to pledged assets; and
8.
a lender should disclose:
1.
the fair value of collateral (both financial and non-financial assets) that it has accepted and that it is permitted to sell or repledge in the absence of default;
2.
the fair value of collateral that it has sold or repledged; and
3.
(consistent with FRS 32.47(a) and FRS 32.49(g)) any significant terms and conditions associated with its use of collateral.
Effective Date and Transition
168. FRS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement, shall be operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1st January 2005. Earlier application is permitted.
169. The transition to this Standard should be as follows:
1.
recognition, derecognition, measurement, and hedge accounting policies followed in financial statements for periods prior to the effective date of this Standard should not be reversed and, therefore, those financial statements should not be restated;
2.
for those transactions entered into before the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied that the enterprise did previously designate as hedges, the recognition, derecognition, and measurement provisions of this Standard should be applied prospectively. Therefore, if the previously designated hedge does not meet the conditions for an effective hedge set out in paragraph 139 and the hedging instrument is still held, hedge accounting will no longer be appropriate starting with the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied. Accounting in prior financial years should not be retrospectively changed to conform to the requirements of this Standard. Paragraphs 153 and 160 explain how to discontinue hedge accounting;
3.
at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, an enterprise should recognise all derivatives in its balance sheet as either assets or liabilities and should measure them at fair value (except for a derivative that is linked to and that must be settled by delivery of an unquoted equity instrument whose fair value cannot be measured reliably). Because all derivatives, other than those that are designated hedging instruments, are considered held for trading, the difference between previous carrying amount (which may have been zero) and fair value of derivatives should be recognised as an adjustment of the balance of retained earnings at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied (other than for a derivative that is a designated hedging instrument);
4.
at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, an enterprise should apply the criteria in paragraphs 63-99 to identify those financial assets and liabilities that should be measured at fair value and those that should be measured at amortised cost, and it should remeasure those assets as appropriate. Any adjustment of the previous carrying amount should be recognised as an adjustment of the balance of retained earnings at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied;
5.
at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, any balance sheet positions in fair value hedges of existing assets and liabilities should be accounted for by adjusting their carrying amounts to reflect the fair value of the hedging instrument;
6.
if an enterprise's hedge accounting policies prior to initial application of this Standard had included deferral, as assets and liabilities, of gains or losses on cash flow hedges, at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, those deferred gains and losses should be reclassified as a separate component of equity to the extent that the transactions meet the criteria in paragraph 139 and, thereafter, accounted for as set out in paragraphs 157-159;
7.
transactions entered into before the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied should not be retrospectively designated as hedges;
8.
if a securitisation, transfer, or other derecognition transaction was entered into prior to the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, the accounting for that transaction should not be retrospectively changed to conform to the requirements of this Standard; and
9.
at the beginning of the financial year in which this Standard is initially applied, an enterprise should classify a financial instrument as equity or as a liability in accordance with paragraph 11 of this Standard.
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To 10:26AM
You got to be kidding me fool! So tell me where can you find a piece of land for $20,000 around Dey Krahorm ? Where? Show me where!
There are 152 families from Dey Krahorm community! Just do the math mother fucker!
$20,000 x 152 families = $3,040,000
Now do you think the cash starved 7NG Company has this kind of money?
I curse you to hell mother fucker! So you want $20,000 divided by 152 families? Where each family can get only $131.57 dollars????
Fuck you bitch! Fuck your mother! Fuck you father! Fuck you grand father and fuck your grand mother! Fuck your children too if you have one! Stupid mother fucker! You go to hell mother fucker!
You're wrong, 11:09 PM! Each family was offered about $20,000 to $25,000 to leave the land that they did not own in the first place. But some became greedy and wanted $50,000 or more. That's why the authorities had to move in and do the dirty work.
In Cambodia you can do a lot with $20,000 if you're a decent person. You can buy a piece of land in the rural area and plant rice, or use the money to start a business.
Only lazy people try to live off $50,000 for the rest of their lives.
That's why you see a lot of Khmer people on welfare in the U.S. They're lazy and they think they're entitled to other people's money.
This is how ah Scam Rainxy makes Khmer suffering for his own political gain.
To 11:56PM
"The 7NG company grabbed 3.6 hectares of prime city-centre real estate, valued at US$44 million, with the assistance of police and other armed government forces."
Prove to me that I am wrong stupid mother fucker! Now you want to tell dirt poor Cambodian people where they should live stupid mother fucker? It is only Pol Pot regime that tell where Cambodian people to live and now you too? Listen stupid mother fucker dirt poor Cambodian people have to right to live where they want to live according to the law!
AH HUN SEN always said that Cambodia have a free market and everything is dictate by market price since the market price of real estate at Dey Krahorm is at $44 million and don't you think it is fair that the 7NG pay these dirt poor Cambodian people at a market price!
"$20,000 isn't enough, but we feel it's all we can get now," he said. Srey Sothea, 7NG chairman, reaffirmed his stance to stop offering cash compensation to evicted residents."
Nobody is asking for entitlement stupid mother fucker! Cambodian people are just asking for a fair market price because they need the money to buy another piece of land to call home! Is this too much to ask stupid mother fucker! The sad part of it all is that the 7NG no longer a compensation! So this means dirt poor Cambodian people will eat dirt!
Oh please don’t even start the welfare issue with me! So you think that a lot of Cambodian people in the United States are on welfare comparing to the Viet or other race? Show me statistic than I will believe you! Nice try! No Cambodian people are asking for entitlement and it is you who is asking for entitlement! Remember! Cambodian people may be dirt poor but they refuse to live like animal and please don’t make them live like animal!
"Evictees request 7NG money"
http://www.phnompenhpost.com/index.php/2009012623836/National-news/Evictees-request-7NG-money.html
Frankly.. last information we have from RFA...
Srey Sothea won't pay any pennies...
The reason is that the building already destroyed... So too late for the poor peoples.
What kind of development do the government of Cambodia do ?
Somebody should kill this Srey Sothea for justice !
These people are lucky to get 20k to 25k to relocate- certainly enough to buy an apartment or even to buy small plot and build. In past situations, the people who were illegally occupying the land were just kicked off and dumped somewhere out to town. Illegal occupation in any county is going to result in being evicted even by force if the person is not willing to leave voluntarily. You follow the rule of law or not- in this case the developer certainly appears to have given money that, legally, he did not have to give.
To 2:42AM
Hey dumb arse! Just shut the fuck up okay! The fucken problem that dirt poor Cambodian people are dealing with is the present and not in the past! What is the fucken point of talking about the past? This is talking about free market at work? Everything in Cambodia base on free market even a whore on the street sell their body base on free market price!
Dirt poor Cambodian people have the right to pick and chose where they want to live and you and your cronies have no right to tell them where to live!
Stop teasing dirt poor Cambodian people with your nickels and dimes okay! If the 7NG claimed to pay dirt poor Cambodian people money and where is the fucken money and why AH Srey Sothea, 7NG chairman, reaffirmed his stance to stop offering cash compensation to evicted residents?
Wow! You guy sure know how to do magic! Now you have the money and now you don't? ahahhahahahahaha
Talking about buying what? Apartment and a small plot of land? What kind apartment and how small is a plot of land are you talking about?
How about apartment next to the high crime area or how about a small plot of land next to a trash dumps?
Dirt poor Cambodian people have the right to pick and chose the same way as you!
WHAT LAW!!!!!!!??? (2.42AM)
The land problem is one of the most difficult problems and has it’s roots in the original taking of all land by the KR government. Those who owned land before 75 were not given any rights to claim their ownership rights. Under the first Land Law passed by the National Assembly, those in possession of land could apply for clear title, and this was expanded in the new Land Law passed around 02 for only for a short time. It appears that these people were evicted but had not legal title. When the land-which was owned by the government (again, because all land was taken from their original owners without compensation) was either sold or leased, most probably the government required compensation to those being dispossessed in order for them to relocate, and while 20k seems like not allot, it is enough to purchase an apartment or build a modest house. The government should be given credit that it required that the developer pay existing illegal occupiers of the land 20k each family being dispossessed. This probably a first and should be applauded.
Have we seen the government evicts Vietnamese illegal settlers yet?
If they don't do that in the US, they don't do that here. We only follow the US.
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