Paleoenvironmental history of the West Baray, Angkor (Cambodia)

1. Mary Beth Day^a,¹,
2. David A. Hodell^b,
3. Mark Brenner^c,
4. Hazel J. Chapman^a,
5. Jason H. Curtis^d,
6. William F. Kenney^c,
7. Alan L. Kolata^e, and
8. Larry C. Peterson^f

Author Affiliations

1. ^aDepartment of Earth Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, CB2 3EQ;
2. ^bDepartment of Earth Sciences and Godwin Laboratory for Palaeoclimate Research, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, CB2 3EQ;
3. ^cDepartment of Geological Sciences and Land Use and Environmental Change Institute, P.O. Box 112120, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611;
4. ^dDepartment of Geological Sciences, P.O. Box 112120, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611;
5. ^eDepartment of Anthropology, 1126 East 59th Street, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637; and
6. ^fRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33149

1. Edited by Mark H Thiemens, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, and approved November 22, 2011 (received for review July 15, 2011)

Abstract

Angkor (Cambodia) was the seat of the Khmer Empire from the 9th to 15th century AD. The site is noted for its monumental architecture and complex hydro-engineering systems, comprised of canals, moats, embankments, and large reservoirs, known as barays. We infer a 1,000-y, ¹⁴C-dated paleoenvironmental record from study of an approximately 2-m sediment core taken in the largest Khmer reservoir, the West Baray. The baray was utilized and managed from the time of construction in the early 11th century, through the 13th century. During that time, the West Baray received relatively high rates of detrital input. In the 14th century, linear sedimentation rates diminished by an order of magnitude, yielding a condensed section that correlates temporally with episodes of regional monsoon failure during the late 14th and early 15th century, recorded in tree ring records from Vietnam. Our results demonstrate that changes in the water management system were associated with the decline of the Angkorian kingdom during that period. By the 17th century, the West Baray again functioned as a limnetic system. Ecologic and sedimentologic changes over the last millennium, detected in the baray deposits, are attributed to shifts in regional-scale Khmer water management, evolving land use practices in the catchment, and regional climate change.

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The Big Picture: Orange crush

Thursday, 29 April 2010
By Kunal Dutta
The Independent (UK)

Buddhist monks at the Bayon Temple in Cambodia to commemorate Visak Bochea (Photo: AFP/ GETTY IMAGES)

Buddhist monks gather at the Bayon Temple in Cambodia to commemorate Visak Bochea – the day of Buddha's birth, enlightenment and death.

The celebration, which coincides with the first full moon of the year – and the Buddhist calendar year 2553 – saw monks congregrate at the ancient temple for sermons, chanting and a candle-lit procession.

Situated in Siem Reap province, the Bayon Temple was built in the 12th century by King Jayavarman VII. As well as etchings of the Buddha, one side of it features an smiling face, thought by some to be a portrait of Jayavarman himself. It has been dubbed the "Mona Lisa of Southeast Asia".

SKorea to fund new road at Angkor temple complex

2010-03-01
By SOPHENG CHEANG
Associated Press

South Korea has provided $9.2 million to Cambodia to build a new road that will circle the famed Angkor temple complex and reduce traffic in the area, officials said Monday.

The 13-mile (21-kilometer) road will be closed to trucks to reduce pollution, noise and vibrations that could damage the ancient ruins, said Soeung Kong, vice secretary-general of the Apsara Authority, the government agency that oversees the temples.

Construction will start this year and take three years to complete, he said.

It will be the second road in the Angkor area funded by South Korea, connecting with existing roads to the north and northwest of the temples, said South Korean Embassy official Son Sungil. The first road extended south from the temple complex.

Tourism is a major foreign currency earner for cash-strapped Cambodia, which hosts nearly 1.5 million foreign tourists each year, mostly from South Korea, Japan and the United States. More than half of the tourists visit Angkor, a UNESCO World Heritage site in northwestern Siem Reap province.

The temples were built when Angkorian kings ruled over much of Southeast Asia between the 9th and 14th centuries.

Conservationists have long expressed concerns about tourism's impact. They say uncontrolled pumping of underground water to meet the rising demand of hotels and residents in the nearby town of Siem Reap may be destabilizing the earth beneath the temples.

Angkor Wat: Enduring architectural achievement

7 Feb, 2008
Nivedita Choudhuri
TNN (India)

The Angkor temple complex in Cambodia represents one of humankind’s most astonishing and enduring architectural achievements. Even after hundreds of years of neglect, the dozens of spires and thousands of feet of intricate stone carving – all without the use of mortar or machines – stand as a monument to what ancient civilizations were capable of.

But this is not yet another story of how yet another Indian tourist was bedazzled by the sheer magnificence of the iconic Angkor Wat main complex... There are literally hundreds of temples and shrines in and around what is known as the Angkor temple complex and Angkor Wat is only one of them, although it is by far the most famous.

You’re getting my drift, right? While the sheer scale of the main temple is breathtaking, there are many of other temples there that are almost as spectacular, and are often more interesting to tour too since Angkor Wat is more crowded.

One of my favourites is the Bayon. Built as the state temple of Khmer ruler Jayavarman VII in the early 13th century, the Bayon’s most distinctive feature is the multitude of face-towers which rise up to its central peak. There are more than 50 towers and most are carved with four faces on each cardinal point.

The Bayon is also unlike most other temples as no walls surround the terrain. The temple has two sets of bas-reliefs carved at different times. Those on the walls of the outer enclosure were carved earlier and deal with historical subjects, from battles with the Chams to scenes of daily life. The bas-reliefs on the inner enclosure are taken from Hindu mythology.

The Bayon is at the centre of Angkor Thom, one of the largest Khmer cities ever built. The city gates have face-towers and the wonderful south gate has two rows of gods and asuras lining the bridge across a moat.

The Bayon, my driver told me, is best seen during early morning as the sunrise creates an eerie effect on the faces.
My husband and I passed on next to the Bapuon, which was the state temple of Yasodharapura in the 11th century. On the way we passed an amputee musician who was playing a cello-like instrument. A small crowd had gathered around him as the melodies rose through the air. Some people stepped forward and dropped dollar bills into a bowl.

Bapuon is essentially a massive five-tiered pyramid set within a long enclosure, but its ruined condition obscures its former importance. It is in the process of being restored, and parts of the temple are closed for work.
The Elephant Terrace, Leper King Terrace and Phimeanakas are a few minutes’ walk from Bapuon and can be covered in no time at all. The Elephant Terrace is a huge platform at the heart of Angkor Thom and its bas-reliefs showing hunting scenes with elephants are particularly striking. The Leper King Terrace is another massive platform with carvings of mythological scenes.

Phimeanakas was the state temple of King Suryavarman I in the 11th century. We didn’t feel like climbing the steep and narrow steps of the Phimeanakas and decided instead to rest for a while near a pond on the temple premises...


If we had hoped for a few minutes of peace and quiet, we were wrong! A couple of urchins materialised out of nowhere just as we had made ourselves comfortable and started chiming “one dollar, one dollar” in what they thought, I’m sure, is a very Yankee accent.

The dollar is ubiquitous in touristy Siem Reap – the town closest to the Angkor temples – and its surroundings and the humble Cambodian riel is all but forgotten!

A little more than 20 km north of Angkor sits the small but remarkable temple of Banteay Srei. The isolated and semi-wooded setting at the foot of the Kulen mountains should have been just perfect, but the mess of souvenir shops and restaurants outside the temple takes away some of the charm.

Banteay Srei was not a royal temple. It was built by one of King Rajendravarman’s counsellors in the 10th century. The temple’s miniature proportions and superb decorative carvings in pink sandstone act as a magnet for visitors.
Most of the lintels and pediments are within the inner enclosure, and show Shiva, Durga and Vishnu, among others.
Sightseeing over, we decided to while away time in the souvenir shops that were stocked to the brim with brass and bronze figures, masks, colourful cloth for sarongs and hats, paintings, jewellery, gems, woodcarvings, T-shirts with temple prints and kramas.

A krama, by the way, is a sturdy garment that can be used as a scarf, to cover the face, carry children or for decorative purposes! It is fairly inexpensive and makes for an excellent souvenir. We haggled hard and managed to bag some lovely brass figures of Ganesh and Vishnu for a fairly reasonable price.

Unlike other temples at Angkor, Ta Prohm has been left as it was found. The walls, roofs, chambers and courtyards have been repaired to stop further deterioration, but the temple has been left in the stranglehold of trees. The unrestored state of Ta Prohm, coupled with the size and complexity of its layout, makes orientation a little difficult.

Do watch your step: the interiors are pitch dark and my husband and I both tripped in our enthusiasm!
On the final day of our tour, we went on an outing 30 km beyond Angkor Wat to a mountain region of waterfalls and riverbed carvings. The appalling road surface notwithstanding, an excursion to Phnom Kulen is worth it just to look at the hundreds of lingams carved into the bed of a river flowing down the peak!

In the early 9th century, King Jayavarman II ordered that part of the river be diverted so that the lingams could be carved. According to legend, he declared himself king on this peak and with him began four centuries of Khmer rule that produced the exquisite Angkor temples.

Phnom Kulen also represents a change of scenery for those who have spent days looking only at temples and wish to see something of rural Cambodia.

Regardless of how much you have read about it and how many photos you have seen of it, the Angkor temples will astound you. You don’t have to be a serious temple enthusiast to enjoy the wonders of this incredible site. It’s a world made to impress.

Ghost of grandeur

More than meets the eye: Angkor Wat is just part of the greater Angkor complex, which includes Boeng Mealea temple.

February 03, 2008
By Terry Sweetman
Courier Mail (Australia)

IF you want a good reason to weed your garden pavers this morning, look no farther than the temple of Boeng Mealea in Cambodia.

This extraordinary 11th century structure is a tumble of massive stones resembling a Lego castle after a child's tantrum.

Its destruction is a testament to the inexorable power of fig roots and other jungle vegetation over hundreds of years.

I know the theory and I have seen the process in its relative infancy at other temples but it seems barely credible that this is the result of time rather than some instant cataclysm.

Yet there is no history of earthquake in Cambodia and not even the ruthless and murderous Khmer Rouge visited such destruction on the temples, although they quite possibly would have if they could have.

Unintentionally, the Khmer Rouge preserved Boeng Mealea from the worst trespasses of modern tourism by seeding the area with landmines.

More adventurous visitors have been trickling in for some time but a sign at the entrance tells us that Minefield M7757 was finally cleared only late last year.

(A sign reading: "This minefield funded by the Federal Republic of Germany" raises the odd eyebrow, but we know what they meant.)

Although much of Boeng Mealea is ruins, parts of the walls are largely intact, powerful reminders of the grandeur of the original structure.

It is one of the largest temples outside the main Angkor complex but it is strangely quite and reflective in the absence of hordes of tourists.

The encompassing vegetation makes it blissfully cool in the dry season but suffocatingly humid in the wet.

Travel Indochina is among the first to add the temple to its itineraries but the ubiquitous tuk-tuks are there with backpackers and others with the fortitude to make the dusty two-hour drive from Siem Reap.

Carpenters are labouring at Cambodian pace to erect protective and safety-first stairs and boardwalks but, for now, tourists are free to clamber through, over and under the ruins.

It's not archeologically correct but it's a lot of fun although, in parts, quite strenuous and potentially dangerous.

It's so far out in the boonies that the panhandlers haven't got there in strength, although the vanguard has arrived.

Making up for them are temple guards who are helpful to the point of distraction in the expectation of a buck at the other end.

But before you brush them off, you might appreciate their help on some of the scrambles.

The opening up of Boeng Mealea is symbolic of a growing understanding of the magnitude, might and significance of greater Angkor, a huge complex of sophisticated temples once woven together by a network of roads and canals and home to countless villages that have disappeared into wood dust.

Guides proudly tell that at its peak of power in the 15th century 1 million people lived in Angkor at a time when London was little more than a largish town with attitude.

To an extent, our understanding suffers from the success of Angkor Wat, which many tourists think is Angkor, a little like thinking the Colosseum is Rome when it is only a fragment of the grand mosaic.

And, if you ever have the joy of greeting the day at Angkor Wat, you can understand why.

It embraces you in a strange pre-dawn intimacy that gradually disappears as the rising sun reveals hundreds of shutterbugs straining to capture the sunrise shot that might somehow have eluded millions of others.

Filling the gap in the understanding of the inter-related temples and making more intelligible the relationships between Hindu deities and Buddhist worship is nearby Siem Reap's National Museum, an imaginative newcomer that still seems largely off the tourist map, although admission is included in the hefty Angkor Park entrance fee ($45 for three days).

The Angkor complex deserves the same historic and tourist attention as the remains of ancient Egypt, classical Greece and ancient Rome.

And increasingly it is getting that attention and becoming so much more than a curiosity on the backpacker track.

Siem Reap is waxing fat on the Angkor industry, which is a good thing in one of the poorest countries in the world.

People lament the hordes of tourists and the rash of new hotels but it still remains a great-value destination with accommodation ranging from the modest to the luxurious.

(Closest to the temple complex is Le Meridien, a swish newcomer with one of the best pool complexes you could hope for.)

Most of the more garish hotels on the outskirts cater for fly-in, fly-out, eat-at-the-hotel Koreans, so the centre of the city remains pretty much as ever, although increasingly clean and tidy.

And Cambodian food, which classically predates the introduction of the chilli, has a subtlety and complexity that relies on herbs and spices rather than fiery heat for its excitement.

Pick the right place and you'd have to be very hungry or very thirsty to spend more than $6 a head for dinner and drinks.

And it doesn't matter where you stay, a couple of bucks in a tuk tuk will get you to a good restaurant, a great bar and a taste of the indefinable something that is Cambodia.